A Study of Delaware Indian
Medicine Practice and
. Folk Beliefs
?i^'
,k*f
'«•.,
DsTie
mw(mm<
mmmimm'^f
UNIVERSITY
OF PITTSBURGH
LIBRARY
THIS BOOK PRESENTED BY
C.V. Starrett
[T'
IB
¥
DC
A Study of Delaware Indian
Medicine Practice and
Folk Beliefs
Gladys Tantaquidgeon
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
Department of Public Instruction
PENNSYLVANIA HISTORICAL COMMISSION
Harrisburg, 1942
THE PENNSYLVANIA HISTORICAL COMMISSION
Ross Pier Wright, Chairnmn
Frances Dorrance
Roy F. Nichols
Edward R. Barnsley
Gregg L. Neel
Francis B. Haas, ex-officio.
Superintendent of Public Instruction
S. K. Stevens, State Historian
Donald A. Cadzow, State Anthropologist
TRUSTEES— EX-OFFICIO
Arthur H. James,
Governor of the Commonwealth
F. Clair Ross, Auditor General
G. Harold Wagner, State Treasurer
FOREWORD
THE PRESENT PAPER represents an addition to the series of
studies projected by the Pennsylvania Historical Commission on
the life of the Indian peoples once resident within the State.
This phase of the research program was planned some years ago by
the Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, and car-
ried out, in part, with the aid of funds supplied by the Commission.
The author of the study deserves a special recognition through
qualities she possesses by nature and birth for the task undertaken.
Born and reared in the environment of a Mohegan Indian home in
Connecticut, she had the advantage of association in childhood with
her grandmother and other old women versed in tribal traditions of
plant and herbal medicines. Without having had the privilege of a
technical training in botanic taxonomy. Miss Tantaquidgeon thus ac-
quired a knowledge of identification of growing plants and their cura-
tive qualities and folklore. Her contribution is one that presents the
latter rather than the former aspect. With this background of informa-
tion on the plant lore and medicines of the Mohegan of southern New
England, the author was well fitted for the work of studying the Penn-
sylvania-New Jersey area, and the curing practices of the Delaware.
The flora and folklore of both areas and groups are not those of
distinct types.
Accordingly, when in 1928 Witapanoxwe (James C. Webber), whose
medicine practice is the basis of this study, appeared in Philadelphia
and became the object of investigation at the Department of Anthro-
pology, University of Pennsylvania, the project was conceived and de-
veloped, leading to the collection of the present material. Miss Tanta-
quidgeon's training in comparative ethnology and lifelong interest in
Algonkian nature-curing, placed her in a position to seize the oppor-
tunity. In the ensuing three years she worked at the recording of
Witapanoxwe's knowledge and theories as occasion offered.
The essay presented has limits in scope, some of which will appear
more obvious to ethnologists than to others. It is not a study of a
national stereotype medicine practice of the people we choose to desig-
nate as the Delaware Nation, but rather a sounding and analysis of
information possessed by one typical practitioner in the healing pro-
fession. Individualism is indeed a trait of Pennsylvania Algonkian
native culture in science as well as in character, even though the Dela-
ware Indians are appreciably more institutionalized than the Algonkians
formerly lying north of them. It may be expected that any Delaware
phase of native "science" will show affinities with Iroquoian phases
when more material is at hand from both groups to merit conclusion.
The accompanying study is therefore little more than a beginning in
the line of investigation which presents prospects of promise.
It would not be judicious to avoid mention of pharmacological values
which may lurk beneath the surface of the material recorded. The find-
ings of native American herbalists through the processes of trial and
error may still reveal evidences of understanding of the nature of ills
and their cures which are old to mankind but new to laboratory science.
Of such possibilities we are coming to know more and more as explora-
tion proceeds and data accumulates. Psychotherapy plays its part.
Plant chemistry plays its role, even though in many cases, the agencies
may be in their effects negative or neutral to a considerable degree and
positive in only a few. While no comprehensive study has as yet been
produced in the general field of curative science in North America, it
is appropriate that the Commission provides in the accompanying paper
a step in the building up of material to this end from the Indians of
Pennsylvania whose cultural properties must be sought out and published
before the opportunity is lost forever.
The task of final preparation of the manuscript for publication was
carried on by C. E. Schaefifer, Assistant State Anthropologist.
Donald A. C.'\dzow,
State Anthropologist,
Pennsylvania Historical Commission.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword v
Introduction ix
Delaware Medical Beliefs and Practices 1
Theories on the Cause of Disease 1
Importance of the Dream Vision in Delaware Curing 4
Delaware Practitioners 7
Medicine Gathering Prayer 9
Love Charms 12
Prayer Used in Preparing Love Charm 12
Food Taboos 13
Divinatory Practices 14
The Medicine Bundle 21
The Medicine Stone 23
Curative Practices and Herbal Remedies 24
Miscellaneous Beliefs 33
Warrior's Medicine 34
Use of Wampum in Healing 35
The Otter Medicine 35
The Dog as Vicar of Children 36
Notes on Pregnancy and Child-Birth 36
Witchcraft 38
Dreams 42
Natural Signs and Omens 43
Delaware Food Resources 45
Maize 45
Wild Vegetable Foods 49
Animal Foods , 50
Appendix I
Nanticoke Folk Beliefs 52
Medicine Practices 53
Weather Signs 57
Miscellany 58
Appendix II
Uses of Medicinal Plants Among the Canadian Delaware 64
Appendix III
Three Oklahoma Delaware Myths 68v
Authorities Cited 70
Tables
Plants and Plant Uses of the Oklahoma Delaware 74
Plants and Plant Uses of the Delaware-Munsee, Six Nations
Reserve, Ontario 82
Plants Used by the Nanticoke of Indian River, Sussex Co.,
Delaware 84
INTRODUCTION
IT WAS my privilege and pleasure in the spring of 1930 to record
the following data on native medical practices and folk beliefs as
dictated by Wi-tapanoxwe, "Walks With Daylight," a Delaware
Indian of Dewey, Oklahoma. Witapanoxwe was retained as an in-
formant for some months in Philadelphia with the aid of funds pro-
vided, in part, by the Pennsylvania Historical Commission. Some in-
teresting facts concerning his life, as well as historical data pertaining
to the location, migrations, and present status of the Delaware Indians
were, presented in a preceding volume (Speck, 1931) of this series. It
seems unnecessary, therefore, for me to duplicate such information in
the present monograph.
The material presented herein is offered not as a complete and ex-
haustive study of the curing practices and plant lore of the Delaware
Indians but as the theories, practices, and beliefs of one practitioner —
information for the most part to be regarded as personal property
bequeathed to the informant by certain members of his family or re-
vealed to him in dreams. There are, however, incorporated in these
notes descriptions of certain observances of a more general nature
which represent the common property of the tribe.
To much that has been written giving actual data on the pharmacology
of various tribes in North America, the collection of Delaware material
presented here will prove a helpful addition. Among the leading studies
in this field, mention should be given to that of Robbins, Harrington,
and Freire-Marreco (1916) on the Tewa, and various others by
Mooney (1892), Swanton (1928a, 1928c), Speck (1937b) and Olbrechts
(Cherokee MS., 1929) for the Southeast. For the Algonkian-speaking
peoples of various tribal and cultural types the quantity of published ma-
terial is also considerable, permitting ere long some attempt at a com-
parative summary. In this connection similar data contained in the Meno-
mini studies of Smith (1923), and Bloomfield (1928) ; the Ojibwa re-
searches of Hoffman (1893), and Densmore (1928) ; Gilmore's mate-
rial (1919) from the Misouri River region, not to mention infor-
mation published by Speck (1907, 1909, 1911, 1915, 1917), all
offer much that is suggestive of the historical background from which
such practices and beliefs may be supposed to have developed.
In connection with such studies I have in mind also the collections of
unpublished herbal and charm cures obtained from various remnants
of Algonkian peoples on the Atlantic seaboard by Dr. Speck (Powhatan
MS.), Dr. Hallowell (St. Francis Abenaki MS.), and myself (1928;
Gayhead and Mashpee Indian MS.). The material from these various
groups although possessing its own ethnic individuality, still overlaps
in certain respects. And where the practices and beliefs of many tribes
reveal similarity to the folk remedies of Europeans in the New World,
the problem of interpretation of properties is made extremely compli-
cated. Realizing that many of the plants and weeds are migrants from
Europe to the New World, we shall have to proceed with caution in
view of the fact that the Indians had an ample native pharmacology
of their own before the period of conquest, and that an experimental
spirit was always and everywhere active in revealing new cures among
the invading plant hosts. It will, therefore, not be an easy task to dis-
tinguish between what is Indian and what is European, until we can
assign the concepts and practices to one or the other.
No one, I believe, would deny that there has been much borrowing,
as it is called, on the part of the Colonial whites from the Indians as a
glance at the voluminous contents of the United States Dispensary
(1926) will reveal. In the north this process was initiated by the
French who accompanied Cartier (1906, pp. 7Z, 77) and who would
have perished from scurvy, had it not been for the therapeutic knowl-
edge of those Algonquin or Montagnais who supplied them with an
effective medicine concocted of white cedar bark. Subsequent to this
reference in the early documents many others are encountered indicat-
ing a deep-rooted system of primitive medicine which was, as it should
be, partly pharmacological and partly psychological.
The Delaware system of health protection and disease curing seems
to be a blend of what students of comparative medicine have agreed
in calling primitive religion and science. In Delaware the sophistry
and the performances of healing are religious while the knowledge ap-
plied in these processes is scientific. And yet where the action of the
herbs, if not other substances, is mechanical or chemical, there is
always the dependence upon the spiritual power of the healer with the
deep emotional attributes from which the Delaware mind is never free
when operating in these channels of thought. There has been, however,
a certain element of hard-headed and non-magical experimentation
blended together in the development of the herbal cures, at least from
the point of view of native method. For the observation of repeated
success with some remedies and failure with others has not escaped the
attention of the native doctor. Conversations with Witapanoxwe and
the herbalists of other tribes have made me aware frequently that selec-
tive judgment was combined with past experience in the profession.
To deny this would be to discount the mental stature of these men of
thought and study to a degree that would bring a smile to the person
who has had intimate associations with the native doctors among any
of the eastern tribes. Like students of other professions they compre-
hend the unlimited bounds of knowledge and are ever seeking for addi-
tions to both pharmacopeia and technical or magical theory. And the
test of efficacy is present in their disciplines even though the test is
judged by the results of treatment rather than by the science of com-
position. I might compare it, in some respects, to the tenets of
Christian Science without, I hope, doing too much injustice to the
basis of this much favored school of reasoning. The Delaware would
ofifer an instance of the powerful influence of religious beliefs upon
professional technique, cited by Kirkpatrick (1929, p. 249) and elab-
orated by Boas (1929), Goldenweiser (1922) and Lowie (1924b)
among American students of the subject. Here, however, lies an ex-
tended field for investigation which in no manner depends for its
development upon Delaware data but in which, I hope, this material
will find a place as illustrative of the status of magical science and
religion among one of the eastern Algonkian tribes.
That the Delaware of today are not so dififerent from their forebears
of two centuries ago as regards ability to treat cases that baffle their
rivals of the European profession, is shown by a statement in 1698 of
Gabriel Thomas (1912, pp. 323, 340) who said, "The Indians are able
doctors and surgeons as any in Europe, performing celebrated cures
therewith." From the account written by Heckewelder (1876, p. 229)
we have the following testimony. "I, myself, have been benefited and
cured by taking their emetics and medicines in fevers, and by being
sweated after their manner while laboring under a stubborn rheuma-
tism. I have also known many, both whites and Indians, who have with
the same success resorted to the Indian physicians, while laboring under
diseases .. . I firmly believe that there is no wound, unless it should
be absolutely mortal, or beyond the skill of our own good practitioners,
which an Indian surgeon (I mean the best of them) will not succeed
in healing." Zeisberger also refers to their ability to treat successfully
different maladies, especially diseases peculiar to women. As for the
present my informant lays claim to the curing of thirty-two persons
during his sojourn in Philadelphia, for which he received no more
regular compensation than voluntary gifts from persons of the under-
privileged classes.
In assembling the botanic material presented here, specimens of
plants were gathered in the wider Philadelphia area in company with
my informant who explained at length their medicinal properties and
uses. This collection was later supplemented by a few plants sent me
by Witapanoxwe from his home in Oklahoma. From time to time such
specimens were submitted to Dr. John M. Fogg, Department of Botany,
University of Pennsylvania, who very kindly checked their scientific
identity. At the conclusion of the investigation a complete list of plant
specimens was sent to M. R. Gilmore, University of Michigan, for com-
ment of an ethno-botanical nature.
In the text, bibliographic citations are indicated by the author's name
and the date of publication, to permit ready reference to the bibliography.
DELAWARE MEDICAL BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
Theories on the Causes of Disease.
THE DELAWARE, like so many preliterate peoples, share con-
cepts of a similar character concerning the causes of disease
(Clements, 1932). Certain maladies are attributed to the pres-
ence of some evil spirit in the body, which in turn is believed to be
the work of a sorcerer; others are thought due to the patients' in-
iquities while a few result from an encounter with an apparition.
Failure to obey the laws of nature is the reason most frequently cited
by Wi-tapanoxwe for the increase of disease among the Delaware. He
said, in part, "In ancient times there was but little sickness among the
Indians. The Delaware were greatly blessed because we always kept
up our ceremonies and observed the rules of right living.^ The Indian
was healthy because he ate only clean, pure food and lived close to
nature. Then came the new people with their strange ways and food,
and dreadful diseases."
Paraphrasing the statements of the informant, it is implied that
with the onset and steady progress of Europeanization, the Indian was
obliged to relinquish many of the ways of his accustomed mode of
life. He was forced to seek new territories in order to escape the alien
influences that were being forced upon him. Like the wild game, the
Delaware fled to more remote regions because their former environ-
ment had become so thoroughly contaminated. At this time, it is said,
the dwarfs and other non-human folk had safety and seclusion in the
rocky cliffs. Certain plants no longer reproduced and grew. Those
Indians who clung tenaciously to the teachings of their elders were
greatly blessed by the Creator who guided them in visions as of old.
From the conservative viewpoint of Witapanoxwe, individuals of a
weaker "intellect," were unable to cope with such adverse conditions
and were swept away by the devastating effects of acculturation.
'Reference may be made to a recent paper of A. I. Hallowell (1939) in which
he has shown that "sin" is considered a potent causation of disease among the
Saulteaux Indians of the Lake Winnipeg region — Editor.
The following examples are typical of the ideas which the present-
day Oklahoma Delaware express in their rationalization of the causes
of various maladies and physical deformities. Rheumatism, which the
Delaware call by a term meaning "old people's disease," is attributed
to unclean habits of living during youth. Scrofula is described by the
Delaware phrase meaning "matter around the neck." If a person in-
dulges in profanity, he may develop this condition.
It is said that congenital malformation rarely occurs among the In-
dians. Such physical abnormalities are attributed to the power of
malevolent spirits which afflicted the child because of his parents' failure
to fulfill tribal obligations by keeping up certain ceremonies bequeathed
to them. Such a physical handicap, however, did not keep an individual
from leading a useful life, for he was otherwise blessed. The informant
added, "Sometimes the weakest person is chosen by the Creator to be
powerful in mind. He does that as a matter of pity." ^
Paralysis is said to be the result of an encounter with an apparition.'
If a person sees a ghost-like form approaching, he should step aside to
avoid being stricken with paralysis. According to Witapanoxwe, "an
apparition in passing by is felt as a slight wind. Sometimes what ap-
pears to be a cloud is seen floating along the road and if allowed to
touch a person, will cause a stroke." Occasionally a fire is observed
to start at the bottom of a tree, blaze up to the top, and then disappear.
The informant warned against attempting to strike at such a flame
inasmuch as it would result in fatal sickness to the person or to a
member of his family.
Witapanoxwe relates the following incident of a personal encounter
with an apparition. "We were just young boys then, my brother and I,
and we were riding home one afternoon just before sundown. As we
rode along I noticed something in the middle of the road, and it
seemed to be coming toward us. It had the appearance of a large animal
but I could not see its form distinctly. Naturally, I was a little bewild-
' Delaware mythology reiterates the theme of the weakling child vanquishing his
powerful opponents through the weapon of shrewd wits over brute strength
' Zeisberger (no date, p. 131) says in regard to apparitions: "Wandering spirits
and ghosts they claim sometimes throw something into a public path and whoever
goes over it is bewitched and becomes lame or ill. They even pretend to know
where such a thing happened, learning it from the doctors who are thought to be
able to effect a cure."
ered but I did not tell my brother what I saw. It seemed to come
nearer and nearer to us but as we drew close, the thing disappeared
suddenly into the woods. I asked my brother if he had seen the strange
object but he replied that he had not. When we reached home I told
my mother what I had seen and she warned us never to follow a ghost
like that as it would lead us astray and finally to a pile of bones."
It may be of interest to note here that at times several people might
see the same ghost and "feel" it pass by. Such an experience is always
regarded as a warning, foretelling illness, death, or some sudden event.
Children are cautioned against answering the call of an unseen person
as it might prove to be a "ghost-whoop." Should a child answer such
a call, his jaw would become dislocated or even his entire body paralyzed.
Once a hunter answered such a "ghost-whoop" and upon trying to locate
it, ran into a stack of bones.*
The cause of insanity is attributed to the failure of a family to per-
form certain inherited ceremonials. Failure to continue such prescribed
rites is punished by misfortune of some kind. Certain individuals are
capable of exorcising people afflicted with this malady, the Indian name
for which is translated as "lacking good sense." In one incident a
young man believed that he saw a "mask" everywhere he went. His
relatives finally resorted to a sweat doctor who entered the sweat lodge
to ascertain the cause of the illness. After the ritual the doctor an-
nounced that it was due to their failure to perform regularly a ceremony
which had come down in the family. In order to avert further trouble
and to rid the young man of the disease, the doctor advised that the
neglected feast and ceremony be performed, after which the patient
became normal once more. Could anything be more in conformity with
modern psycopathic practice than the preceding case ! Other native
terms which apply to people similarly affected are translated as "silly"
or "half-witted."
I might also note that having in mind the prevalence of the theory that
animals are the main causes of disease among the Qierokee (Mooney,
1892, p. 322), and Muskhogean peoples of the Southeast, I failed to
find any evidence whatever in the mind of my informant of a similar
belief among the Delaware.
* Archaeologists, take note ! — Editor.
3
Importance of the Dream Vision in Delaware Curing
The dream vision ° is of paramount importance in the life of the
Delaware. This supernatural visitation is experienced during childhood,
or less frequently, at the age of maturity. More commonly it occurs
during the fast-vigil of a youth at puberty, alone in the forests search-
ing for a spirit guardian (Benedict, 1923). It is usually to such indi-
viduals, considered by the Spirit-forces to be spiritually and morally
pure, that this great blessing is bestowed. The gift is not restricted to
the male but supernatural power granted to a girl is usually of lesser
force. It is said, however, that women, through spiritual guidance, are
more adept as a rule in the art of preparing and administering herb
medicines than men. Occasionally a man has been blessed with a vision
that gives him power to become an herb doctor. Witapanoxwe became
proficient in that field as will become evident in a subsequent narrative.
Not always is the revelation experienced in a dream. The neophyte
may be walking alone in the woods, or even in a situation of apparent
danger when the presence of the spiritual agent is made known to him.
A voice from a rock, a bird, an animal or even the sky is recognized,
as the medium through which the coveted power is conveyed to the
fortunate one. Occasionally a song is granted to the novice during
the visitation. This bequest is regarded as personal property to be used
exclusively by the owner during participation in the ceremonies of the
Big House or in practicing healing with herbs or in the sweat-lodge.
To receive such a revelation from the Creator means much to a
Delaware. It affords the assurance of spiritual guidance in all things,
thus giving him confidence to go afield and to face whatever adversities
may come into his life without fear.
To those whom the Creator has entrusted with this great gift comes
the full realization of the necessity of fulfilling certain obligations.
The dream-vision is not divulged until a man reaches maturity and
comes to feel that he is capable of appearing before his tribesmen as
one who has had sufficient experience in life to avoid incurring criticism
"Zeisberger "To the dreams they appeal for in them they have much faith."
See also: Ibid, p. 25, Harrington (1921, p. 61). "The most vital and intimate
phase of Lenape religion is the belief in dreams and visions, and in the e.xistence
of personal guardian spirits or supernatural helpers — concepts of wide distribution
among the North American tribes, but rarely so vivid or well-developed as we
find them here."
in carrying out his ceremonial duties. The process of preparation is
long and arduous, a period during which the novice must observe care-
fully the ways of his elders. The youth is instructed to be prayerful
and humble in spirit since it is believed that only through prayer and
faith are great things accomplished. Humility is the keynote of Dela-
ware behavior even among those men and women who have attained
the experience of advanced age. If one has lived a clean, pure life and
has been faithful to the doctrines of his tribal religion, he shall indeed
be called great. Not of the pompous, boastful, type but a truly righteous
man with full realization of the joys and blessings which come to those
who are ever mindful of the Creator.
Some of the more spiritually inclined are known to have had more
than one vision, as in the case of Witapanoxwe whose first revelation
came in his youth, the second later in life. If one has had several visions
he usually is guided by the first but in any event he is free to choose
according to his spiritual needs. After such a decision is made, how-
ever, the individual continues to adhere to the guardian selected through-
out the remainder of his life.
Having lived according to the precepts of his native faith and achieved
the age of mature experience, the informant was not averse to making
known the spiritual power revealed to him during two dream visions.
His recitation and song have been fully given in text in a preceding
number of this series (Speck, 1931, pp. 128, 168). Now he is ready
to take his place in the Big House Ceremonies and in the sweat lodge
but prior to the recording of his vision, he still felt inexperienced and
unworthy of appearing before his kinsmen in a ceremonial role.
The following is presented in the words of Witapanoxwe and is self
explanatory :
It was while attending school at Chilocco, Oklahoma, I was taken
sick with the black measles. The authorities were alarmed, thinking
that it might be scarlet fever and more than a hundred of the pupils
were removed to the local hospital and placed under quarantine. It
was during that time that I had my trials and tribulations. The sum-
mer before, Mr. Wright, a noted evangelist of part Choctaw de-
scent, had visited the school and held revivals. So many were con-
verted that I too thought that I was fully converted and was per-
suaded to say that I had accepted Jesus Christ for my personal
Savior. But now came the real test. I was one of thirty patients in
a first floor ward and read the Scriptures constantly.
The attending nurse had an aged father who often told us that
he had served in the Civil War. During that time he had the measles
but he did not even go to bed. He was assigned to look after the
personal needs of the patients in my ward and he soon tired of his
duties. He would try to force us out of bed and called us all kinds
of ugly names. He was more profane than any white man I had
ever seen. We were not allowed to drink cold water to cool the high
fever of the dreadful disease but were compelled to drink a weak
solution of cayenne-pepper tea to quench our thirst. Of course that
alone was bad enough but the disagreeable old veteran made matters
worse.
His actions so disgusted me that I decided since I was feeling on
the mend, to get up and put on my clothes. Unbeknown to either
the doctor or the nurse, I got up and attended to the patients, giving
them medicine as I had done many times before. It was in the
month of February, the sun came out warm, but there was still a
little scattering of snow on the prairie. Having finished my tasks
I went out on the south side of the building and stood in the sun-
shine for a few minutes. Although I was wearing an overcoat, cap,
and overshoes, the exposure, which I thought was harmless, nearly
caused my death, leaving me weak for many years. Fortunately I
pulled through — weak but determined to live.
This is the first time I have related my experience with the so-
called white man's religion. That evening before five o'clock I was
taken sick and went back to bed again. The doctor and nurse did
not know that I had been up but the sudden rise in my temperature
alarmed them greatly. I was delirious the greater part of the time
for more than seven days. So they decided to notify my parents
who lived some eighty miles away. It was at this time a vision came
to me and accompanied me around the world. At times it seemed
as though we were not on earth. This man spoke the Delaware
language and he showed me many of the Indian ceremonies, some
of which I had never seen or heard before. He showed me men
and women who had departed this life many years before, and told
me their names.
When at times I would awake from what seemed only a short
nap, I would find myself talking to my mother who was at my bed-
side constantly. To my sorrow I found out that many of my com-
rades were worse off than I. It was here that I fully realized that
the teachings of my mother had been so deeply impressed on my
mind. This experience turned me back to the Delaware Big House.
So it happened that years later, after worrying about my careless
life at home in Muskogee, these same strange visions came and spoke
to me from mid-sky and gave me a song. They seemed to be four
in number and were not earthly persons, but belonged to the sky.
It was then they came to tell me what my mission on earth was to
be. Since everyone has a purpose in life, mine was to heal the sick.
Whenever I dreamed a secret I told my mother and she told me to
keep this to myself until I became older. Now as I get older,
I feel that I shall be better known in years to come. I am con-
fident that my dream-vision power will bring me success through-
out life since the Creator does not abandon his children to whom he
had entrusted such gifts. By this I have learned to work out my
own salvation, knowing that the Indian wholly depends upon the
talent allotted to him by the Creator. These experiences fully qualify
me to lead in the Big House if I choose to do so. My brothers do
not know this but they suspect that I have a vision to relate. Some
day they may have the pleasure of hearing it when the opportunity
oflfers.
Delaware Practitioners
Delaware herbaHsts are of two classes:* (1) "one who knows
[medicine] well" and (2) "one who uses medicine for magic purposes." ^
It is believed that to the former is entrusted the knowledge of the heal-
ing properties of plants as well as the methods of preparing and
administering them as medicine. These practitioners are usually women
' Heckewelder (1876, p. 228) refers to the herbalists as "physicians and sur-
geons" and says in part : "By these names I wish to distinguish the good and
honest practitioners who are in the habit of curing and healing diseases and wounds,
by the simple application of natural remedies, without any mixture of superstition
in the manner of preparing them." Zeisberger {op. cit. p. 24) does not classify the
Indian doctors but writes, "There are Indians who have considerable knowledge of
the virtue of roots and herbs, learned from their fathers, and who bring about
relief."
''Ibid, p. 231. Heckewelder, in discussing this type has chosen to call them
"doctors or juggler," for which he gives the following reasons : "These men are
physicians, like the others of whom I have spoken, and like them are acquainted
with the properties and virtues of plants, barks, roots and other remedies. They
differ from them only by their pretensions of a superior knowledge. As the Indians
in general believe in witchcraft, and ascribe to the arts of sorcerers many of the
disorders with which they are afflicted in the regular course of nature, this class
of men has risen up among them who pretend to be skilled in a certain occult
science, by means of which they are able not only to cure natural diseases, but to
counteract or destroy the enchantments of wizards or witches, and expel evil
spirits."
but occasionally a man is blessed with a vision ^ in which the Creator
bestows upon him this great gift, and like Witapanoxwe, he becomes an
herbalist. In addition to the knowledge of healing acquired through his
guardian Spirit," the informant has also followed carefully the teachings
of his mother who was recognized by Delaware of the older generation
as one adept in the art of compounding and administering herbal
remedies.
The second class is composed of individuals whose supernatural
power enables them to perform acts such as reuniting an estranged
couple or dispelling a supposedly evil charm. Certain rare plants are
employed by them in practices resorted to only in emergencies.
It must be emphasized here that, according to Delaware belief, the
practitioners are the medium through whom the Creator sends his
healing power to alleviate distress caused by the physical and mental ills
which attack the frail bodies of mankind.
Absolute faith in the unfailing power and benevolence of the Creator
is the force which inspires the Delaware who has been blessed with a
medicine vision and he is ever appealing in prayer to that higher Spiritual
Force for aid in his professional undertakings.
Believing that plants and animals in general are closely related to
mankind ^" and that the Creator has endowed them individually with
spiritual natures equally as sensitive as our own, the Delaware herbalist
is always careful to perform the formal propitiatory rites before gather-
ing a plant or removing part of an animal for use in making medicine.
If a practitioner is called upon to treat a person during the growing
season in spring or summer, his first move, after the formal acceptance
of the case and receipt of a gift of tobacco, is to go out and seek a
plant of the desired species to be used in making medicine for the
treatment of the particular ailment. After coming upon the first plant
' Zeisberger (op. cit. p. 25) "Fancied skill and imagined ability to heal the sick
are traced to dreams which these individuals may have had in their youth. To the
dreams they appeal, for in them they have much faith." See also Speck, 1931, p. 51 ;
Harrington, 1921, p. 61 ; and Benedict, 1923.
"Harrington (1921, p. 80) quoting from the notes of R. C. Adams, "It is be-
lieved by the Delaware that every one has a guardian spirit which comes in the
form of some bird, animal, or other thing, at times in dreams and tells them what
to do and what will happen. The guardian spirit is sent from the Great spirit."
"Speck (1931, pp. 28, 29) discusses the principle of consanguinity as applied to
deities and nature-forces.
8
of the variety required, he does not gather it " but performs a ritual to
appease the Spirit of the plant. A small hole is dug towards the east
near its base and a small quantity of native tobacco ^^ placed within.
The herbalist then lights his pipe and smokes, meanwhile making the
following appeal to the Creator and to the Spiritual forces which
govern vegetation. The songs and properties are regarded as personal
property and the accompanying medicine-gathering prayer of Wi-tapa-
noxwe is regarded as typical.
Medicine Gathering Prayer (free translation)
"Grandfather, I come now for medical treatment. Your grandson
(name of suppliant) needs your aid. He is giving you a smoke-offering
here of tobacco. He implores you that he will get well because he, your
child, is pitiful. And I myself earnestly pray that you take pity on him
the sick one, I wish for him to get well forever of that which is causing
pain in his body. For with you alone rests the spiritual power sufficient
to bless anyone with, and hear now him our Grandfather tobacco, I beg
of him that he will help me when we plead with earnest heart that you
will take pity on your grandchild and that you will accept this appeal.
I am thankful, Grandfather, also Creator, that you grant our appeal this
day for all that we ask.^^ I am thankful, Grandfather. That is enough
for this time."
Upon the conclusion of this propitiatory rite the medicine person
searches out another plant of the same species, which if clean and
healthy-looking, is then gathered. It is now ready to be treated in ac-
cordance with the rules governing the preparation of roots and herbs
in the accompanying pharmacopeia. If the root of a plant is to be used
in making medicine, it is gathered at the season when the vital prop-
erties are present ; similarly the stalk or leaves each are gathered at the
proper seasons.
"Harrington (1921, p. 26) in reference to the manitowuck to whom the Indians
pray, says, "These are mentioned in the ritual of the Annual Ceremony and the
people often pray to them when gathering herbs or preparing medicines, at the
same time offering tobacco." He also says (p. 51) that, ". . . Some seem to have
prayed to the four directions, other to the presiding genius of the species of the
plants they sought or to the spirit of the individual plant itself."
""Real tobacco" (Nicotiana rustica), to which a Delaware term meaning, "our
grandfather," is also given.
" The proper phrase in full is, "give us what we ask for." It is abbreviated here
to suit the formula.
The herbalist, before using herbs previously gathered and dried, per-
forms the same rite of smoking and prayer. If the plants are being
gathered for future rather than for immediate use, an appeal is made
to the Creator to bless the plants and render the remedies efifective in
curing the future ills of his grandchildren.
The custom of offering prayers before the gathering and preparation
of medicinal plants is not observed exclusively by the medicine men but
is known to every Delaware. However, it was remarked that many fail
to adhere to the ancient rite.
In observing Witapanoxwe I was charmed by the delicate and rev-
erential manner in which he handled the plants secured and arranged
for this study. At this time he emphasized the idea of conservation,
stating that one should gather only what was needed, and that vegeta-
tion in general should not be subjected to ruthless treatment.
Purity means much to the conservative Delaware and so the pure
plants, as taken from Mother Earth, must not be defiled. It is therefore
important that in order to avoid contamination no metal should come
in contact with plants that are to be used in the treatment of disease.
Roots and plants are allowed to dry in the sun, its rays lending them
added potency. In this connection it is considered highly beneficial for
a convalescing person to lie directly in the sun, so that its strengthen-
ings qualities may be transferred to him. After the process of curing,
roots and leaves are prepared by crushing them in a non-metallic re-
ceptacle, a stone basin or a wooden mortar being used for the purpose.
The herbalist smokes and offers a prayer while the medicine is being
prepared and is always careful to stir it in the same direction — from
left to right. One should never blow upon the concoction to cool it; to
do so would represent an affront to the spirit of the plant.
The most able practioner will not treat himself when ill, nor a sick
member of his family, but always calls upon the service of another."
If an herbalist or sweat doctor, after diagnosing a case, feels that it is
beyond his power to effect a cure, he will send the patient to another
more capable of treating him successfully. Sometimes a sick person
"Zeisberger (op. cit. p. 25) "If one should know enough to help himself, being
able to prepare Bcson. and became ill, he will rarely treat himself, having the
superstitious belief that what is prepared by himself will be of no benefit. Using
what has been prepared by another, he believes, will bring relief."
10
will visit several doctors in succession before finding one who has knowl-
edge of preparing a remedy for his particular illness. ^^
The person, either male or female, known by the term meaning "one
who uses medicine for magic purposes," apparently had a larger num-
ber of patients in early times than the type of practitioner previously
described. Zeisberger (op. cit., p. 25), and Heckewelder (op. cit., p.
231), from whom this impression is obtained, give rather detailed
accounts of their seemingly weird practices. Both writers attribute the
popularity of this group of healers to their feigned ability of dispelling
the charms of evil sorcerers whom the Indians constantly feared.
Wi-tapanoxwe clarifies the distorted impressions implicit in these ac-
counts by his interpretation of the procedure employed in treatment.
The herbalist was called upon to aid individuals who have experienced
difficulty in their marital relations or who have tried unsuccessfully to
win the favor of a lover. Others came to him to be freed from male-
volent influences. His power was not, however, limited to the control
of human beings but extended to animals as well. Such a person was
truly a "powerful man." This great power was entrusted with the ad-
monition that it must never be used for malevolent purposes. Like the
group of practitioners previously mentioned, the code of such people was
based upon profound faith in the Creator, strict observance of the laws
of nature and a deep regard for the traditions of their tribe.
The plants employed by such an herbalist were of the rarest and
most powerful kind. Their habitat and medicinal properties were not
known to ordinary individuals. Such plants were unable to withstand
the progress of civilization because, as my informant put it, "they could
not live in unclean surroundings." The preparation made from these
rare flora was known to the Delaware as "medicine for magic use," or
"love medicine" (Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 83). It was regarded as a gift,
not to be used upon ordinary occasions but only in cases of emergency.
^'Zeisberger {ibid., p. 55) states that "Concerning plants and roots of medicinal
value, it would be possible, if one were to devote himself to inquiry, to secure a
great deal of information from the Indians for what one does not know another
does, each man and woman having some knowledge in this direction, some more,
some less. Hence, the custom that a patient who has consulted an Indian and
secures a medicine from him without, however, being benefited, will go immediately
to another ; if no relief is obtained through his advice, the patient goes to a third,
a fourth, until he finds one whose medicine helps."
11
Love Charms
Certain peoples, however, learned long ago to employ medicine of
this nature for evil purposes, frequently to gain influence over women.
In such instances it was called "love medicine for gaining influence," ^*
or "witchcraft." ^' The following test and prayer were given by
Wi-tapanoxwe as characteristic examples of the correct procedure to
bring about the reconciliation of an estranged marital couple.
At the present time the "love-doctor," usually a woman, employs
two varieties of roots for the magical rite. One is known by the term
"flower hangs down";^** the other merely as "pull-up." A portion of
the first variety is broken into three small pieces which are laid upon
the outstretched palm of the practitioner's hand. These represent the
three individuals involved in the ordinary triangular affair, the petitioner
in the center, the spouse or sweetheart to the right, and the third party
to the left. The other palm of the practitioner is then rubbed lightly
over the roots and their movements closely observed. The side towards
which the middle piece is seen to move, indicates the person with whom
the petitioner is in love. The test may not be made more than once a
day, "one test a day," but successive attempts over three or four days
are permissible. The "love-doctor," after offering some of the tobacco
given by the petitioner, attempts through her supernatural power, aided
by prayer, to bring about the reconciliation of husband and wife, or
true lovers. She can however be employed to separate a married couple,
or two lovers, a practice designed by the informant as "bad." The
practice is only employed in the case of serious misunderstanding be-
tween husband and wife, one of whom strives in this way to effect a
reconciliation. The other is not informed of the trial.
Prayer Used in Preparing the Love Charm (free translation)
"Grandmother, I beg of you that you will help your grandchildren to
reconsider each other. They are in trouble so I sacrifice to you this
tobacco, our Grandfather, in order that you will help that man, Big
"Zeisberger (p. 126) refers to the introduction of a poison (witchcraft) called
"mattapassigan" by the Nanticoke. See witchcraft, p. 38ff.
" According to Witapanoxwe this term applies to the act of attempting to gain
influence for legal or illegal purposes by means of the medicine which is said to
have magic qualities. The shaman who practices his profession for evil is also
referred to as one "who practices for evil."
"Podophyllum peltatum, May apple.
12
Bear and that woman, Small Person, to forget their troubles. ^^ Because,
Grandmother, it has been many years that they have been together.
Again, Grandmother, I implore you because it is right that they should
love each other henceforth. If you accept my plea, in two days from
this time the woman will go back."
The second variety of magical root, termed "pull up," is employed
in the following manner. The informant's maternal grandfather trans-
ferred to him the secret of such a medicine gift in order to control
human beings or animals. Although the root is intended primarily
for use in hunting, it could also be employed to coerce or in general,
influence people favorably. I was unable to secure a specimen of this
"rare" plant for scientific identification.^" Witapanoxwe describes the
plant root as having "five prongs." After securing several of the plants,
the roots are prepared by cleansing them thoroughly in running water,
to the accompaniment of songs and prayers. Three branches of the
plant root are then broken off and another, taken from the root of
a plant of the same species, attached to the remaining two, to make three.
In this connection it may be noted that the emphasis upon the number
three in this and the previously decribed love charm represents a
symbolism for which the informant could offer no explanation.
In use, a small quantity of the prepared root is chewed three times
a day. The juice resulting from the first mastication is rubbed on the
hair, that from the second and third is swallowed. Such a procedure
will bring about the desired result in a short time. To lure game ani-
mals some of the root is chewed while hunting. Witapanoxwe related
an incident of holding some of these roots in his hand while singing
his medicine song, and thus luring a squirrel very close to him. The
root is so powerful that if an excessive amount of juice is swallowed,
the person's mind will become affected.
Food Taboos
After he has diagnosed the case, the practitioner prescribes a curative
diet " for the patient, the food restrictions being determined by the
" "Being in trouble."
"" This is probably due to the supposed, magical properties attributed to this plant,
making it dangerous, according to Delaware belief, for persons other than practi-
tioners to handle it. This applies to all other plants used for magical purposes.
"Barber (1856, p. 538) quotes the following from William Penn's letters:
". . . if they eat flesh it must be from the female of any creature." Also see
Zeisberger, op. cit. p. 24.
13
nature of the disease. The flesh of animals and fowl is excluded from
the diet and in the case of fever, red or fox squirrel flesh is not eaten.
This food taboo is known to the Delaware by a native word meaning
"makes you sick." Corn hominy, however, is administered in most cases,
as it is considered to be a nourishing food.
In the case of childbirth, salt is not eaten for ten days. Onions are
given the mother to produce milk, but care must be taken not to use a
quantity such as to cause nausea for the child and mother.
During the catamenial period a woman is not allowed to prepared food
nor taken an active part in domestic affairs. ^^ The separate dishes as-
signed to her at that time, may only be used by her husband. Food
cooked by such a woman would produce tuberculosis in others in a
short time. A term translated as "gives dirty food," is applied to such
a practice and refers to the resultant poisonous effects. During her
periodic isolation a woman herbalist must refrain from preparing
remedies or participating in any of the ceremonies.
DiviNATORY Curing Practices
Certain acts of a divinatory nature are performed upon selection
and preparation of plants, roots, and bark employed in making medicine.
Only plants that are clean and well developed, with the roots free from
knotty growths, are taken. When seeking bark, the medicine gatherer
selects a sturdy, well-formed tree for the purpose. The bark growing
on the east side of a tree is preferred for its greater strength-giving
properties received from the morning sun.
In gathering medicinal supplies, the materials are inspected for a
clue as to the course of the treatment. Thus, if roots appear rough and
knotty, the patient will be difficult to cure; if clean and well-formed, it
will be an easy task to restore his health. Another practice is to place
some crushed leaves or roots in running water. If the substance sinks
to the bottom of the stream, the patient for whom it is prepared, will
die; if it floats, a speedy recovery is assured.
When all other remedies have failed, an emergency medicine is some-
times made from scrapings of deer antler. During its preparation a
prayer is offered to the animal from which the antler was obtained.
Witapanoxwe related an incident in which a trial was made by means
" The puberty ceremony for young girls and the periodic isolation of women is
described by Zeisberger, ibid, pp. 75-77.
14
of this substance. His niece was preparing it for a small child who was
dangerously ill. She dropped a small quantity in a cup of hot water
and observing it settle to the bottom, knew that the small patient would
not recover. The medicine was administered as a tea, but the child died
in a short time.^^
In the making of an emetic, the necessary water should be dipped
from the stream with the current f* for a cathartic, against the current.
A similar regulation applies to the gathering of bark; for use as an
emetic, the bark is peeled upward ; for a cathartic, downward.
Formerly there were among the Delaware, as among other tribes,
certain men and women whose supernatural power enabled them to com-
municate with the dead, to locate lost persons and objects and to foretell
coming events. This practice was known as "locating or foretelling,"
and one who possessed such power was known as a "man who tells of the
future." The source of this extraordinary power was attributed to one's
guardian spirit or in some instances to the spirits of the dead. Those
who were able to communicate with the dead usually performed at night.
Such a person was also thought able to cure paralysis.
Some individuals who possessed the power to stay under water for
a period of several hours at one time, were frequently called upon to
locate a drowned person or a submerged object. One man was known to
have found the body of a drowned person after months of futile search-
ing by others. Some years later, the son of this shaman, after becoming
converted to Christianity and studying for the ministry, finally per-
suaded his father to abandon the native faith and join the Christian
church. In doing so the old seer, forsaken by his supernatural guardian,
forfeited his magical power. Later the old man returned to the Dela-
ware religion, but the power which enabled him to be of service to his
tribesmen, was gone forever.
Wi-tapanoxwe's grandfather was one of the last of the Delaware to
possess such extraordinary mental and physical powers. He was able
to perform the submersion feat and several times located the bodies of
persons who had drowned in the rivers of Kansas. On one occasion a
"^ In reference to remedies for fever, Zeisberger observes (op. cit., p. 55) that
"when a patient has been given a dose, they are generally able to tell by its work-
ings whether he will recover or die. If he does not retain the medicine it is
regarded as a sign that he will hardly recover."
" This practice was noted by Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 224.
15
team of horses which had broken through the ice, were rescued through
this same abihty, to remain beneath the surface of the water for a
considerable period. Power for this abiUty was given him by a teal duck
which appeared to him in a dream. In the informant's words :
When a boy, my grandfather always went swimming every morn-
ing before sun-up, even when there was a thin coating of ice on
the river. One time he dreamed of going down to the ice-covered
stream very early to bathe as usual. When he jumped into the
water the echo could be heard down the river. Then suddenly he
heard a voice saying to him, "I am going to make you a strong man.
You will be able to go under the water as I do." He did not see
anyone around but there close by was a teal. And he could go
down under the water and get fish, too.
So close was the connection of divination with the spiritual realm
that the Delaware noted carefully the last words of a person near to
death. At such a time the dying one is believed to be in close com-
munication with the souls of the departed, who may impart messages of
great importance through this medium to the living. One aged woman
while on her death-bed spoke as follows :
My kindred, we have been wonderfully blessed. We have enjoyed
the gifts which the Creator bestowed upon us. That is because we
have kept our own religion and observed the teachings of our elders
in all things. If you continue to do this in the future, you will not
be subjected to the evils which increase as civilization increases. Do
not give up your own religion.
Another old woman foretold the coming of the railroad twelve years
prior to its appearance, while a third foresaw the granting of citizenship
to the Indians twenty years before its occurrence.
The Sweating Rite
The importance of the sweat lodge ritual, as carried out by the Dela-
ware for the purpose of spiritual and physical purification, is attested
both by early observers,^^ and by more recent students."" According to
Zeisberger, in his discussion of Delaware customs, the practice was at-
tended by rather elaborate rites and was evidently regarded as one of
the major ceremonies. It was performed in honor of fire, being called
machtusin, a term meaning "to perspire," according to the same writer's
translation. A similar rite is described by Harrington, whose informants
named it muxhat' olzing . This is recorded as a variant of the Annual
Ceremony.
"Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 138; Heckewelder, op. cit., p. 225; Loskiel, 1794, pt. 1,
pp. 108-9.
'"Harrington, 1921, 122-126; Speck, 1931, pp. 72-74.
16
In examining the various accounts of this rite, both in pubhshed
and manuscript form and through correspondence and verbal state-
ments, it is evident that what was originally a highly developed cere-
mony performed in honor of the Creator, to whom appeals were sent
through various media (such as fire, tobacco, water, etc.), has been
modified to a great degree by the introduction of alien features and
the abandonment of certain elements to meet the requirements of indi-
viduals. The latter would apply both to the practitioners and to those
who sought treatment for physical and mental ills.
The benefits, according to one early writer (Heckewelder, op. cit.,
p. 225) which were derived from the sweat lodge ritual, were numerous
and varied. He writes : "The sweat oven is the first thing that an
Indian has recourse to when he feels indisposed : it is the place to which
the wearied traveller, hunter, or warrior looks for relief from the
fatigue he has endured, the cold he has caught or the restoration of his
lost appetite." Reference to the works of Zeisberger " and Loskiel ^*
indicate that it was customary for individuals to resort frequently to
the public sweat lodges.
Wi-tapanoxwe states that formerly the sweating rite, as a part of the
annual Big House Ceremony (Speck, 1931, p. 74), was performed to
test the spiritual and physical strength of certain men, usually warriors.
A lodge was built within the Big House and the men went in to pray
and to recite their visions. Those who could withstand the heat for the
longest period, were regarded as possessing the greatest power for war,
and for curing. Information (correspondence, November, 1930) of a
negative character as to the ceremonial aspects of the rite was obtained
from J. A. Parks, of Copan, Oklahoma, who writes, "The sweat lodge
was not a ceremony. It was a method of treating the sick with sweat
baths and hot breaths of air by the Indian doctors."
This brings us to a consideration of the rite as it is performed by the
Delaware sweat doctor today. In the account dictated by Wi-tapanoxwe,
there is evidence of the survival of many elements, originally attached
to the earlier form but subsequently incorporated into the formal pro-
" "It is the custom of the Indians when they are tired or caught cold to go
into a sweating oven several times a week. For this purpose every town has on
its outskirts a sweating oven." {op. cit., p. 26.)
-'Similarly, this writer (op. cit., p. 661) states in reference to the Delaware
that "In every town an oven situated at some distance from the dwelling is built
either of sticks or boards covered with sods, or dug in the side of a hill, and heated
with some redhot stones."
17
cedure within the lodge for the purpose of diagnosing and treating
sickness.
The term appHed to the sweat house healer is one meaning a "sweat
doctor." He always performs within the lodge when asked to examine
or treat a patient. It is interesting to note that my informant, Witapa-
noxwe, and Charley Elkhair, the present head chief of the Oklahoma
Delaware, claim the distinction of being the only men among the
Oklahoma Delaware who have supernatural sanction to perform in
this capacity. The former believes that he is privileged to assume the
role which his people consider appropriate only for men whose mind
and character have been strengthened by years of experience but that
up to the present time (1930) he has not attempted it. The powerful
shamans ^® of an earlier period were said to have been able to perform
miraculous feats and efifect marvelous cures without the aid of the
sweat lodge although it was frequently employed in their practices.
Both of the above types of medicinemen receive their power from
the Creator through dream-visions, the spiritual visitation occurring
usually just before sunrise or sunset. The vision is accompanied by
a medicine song which becomes the personal property of the healer, to
be sung during performances in the sweat lodge. It is said that women
rarely became sweat doctors. Witapanoxwe, since his vision and medi-
cine song were received just before sunrise, considers that as the time
of day during which he would be most successful in curing activities
within the sweat lodge. Those who received their power at sunset
accordingly regarded that as the most suitable time for performances.
Contrary to the herbalist's custom of not accepting gifts or payment
for his services, the sweat doctor expects payment from those who
approach him for consultation and treatment. In former times trader's
trinkets, etc., and somewhat later, horses, blankets, and money were
given by those requiring his services.
The construction and equipment of the sweat lodge are matters of
considerable importance in this particular type of curing. It is built
of twelve poles which represent the twelve levels of heaven (Speck,
1931, p. 74) and according to native belief, lead to the abode of the
Creator. For this purpose saplings chosen for their flexibility, are cut
'^ In Delaware the term used means "powerful man," "man who can heal," and
refers to a type of shaman, called medeu by the Delaware of an earlier period,
especially concerned with curing. Among the Chippewa (Densmore, 1929, pp.
86-97) the mide were the leaders of the mide'wiwin or Grand Medicine Society.
See also Hodge, 1912, p. 523.
18
into lengths averaging from six to eight feet. The end of each of
these poles is pushed into the ground to form a circular outline, five
or six feet in diameter, with a somewhat wider space marking the
entrance towards the north or south. The opposite ends are then bent
over and lashed down to form a dome-shaped structure, over which
skins, mats or blankets are laid. The fire, located in the lodge center, is
built of twelve logs of hard wood. Neither driftwood nor wood obtained
from a tree struck by lightning are suitable for this purpose. The use
of the former, known as "gathered together by water," would tend to
cause a flood. Fuel taken from a tree struck by lightning, is termed
"thunder burned wood" ; its use in the sweat lodge, thus angering
the Lightning Spirit, would cause a severe storm.
The native doctor may employ any person to assist in building the
fire, carrying rocks and water, or arranging mats of Indian hemp and
bark for the pallet upon which the patient is laid. The latter is covered
with skin robes or blankets so that only his head is exposed. After the
fire has burned down sufficiently to form a bed of coals, more logs are
added and the rocks, usually limestone, brought in. Twelve stones of
medium size are placed in the fire. For handling them, a branch of
hickory or any hard wood, about five feet long, is split at one end for
use as a fork. After the rocks have become thoroughly heated, water
is poured over them to produce steam. The doctor prays and sings for
a period of time determined by the nature of the sickness and the
strength of the patient. His song at this time is the narration of his
dream-vision experience made as an appeal to the Creator and his super-
natural guardian. Although the emphasis in this type of treatment is
upon mental suggestion, in some instances tea made of herbs is admin-
istered by the doctor.
In addition to the lodge, poles, fire logs, and steam rocks ^° grouped
in units of twelve to conform with the twelve levels of heaven, sym-
bolical significance is also attached to fire, water, and stone. These
are regarded as minor deities, often referred to in terms of hu-
man consanguinity (Speck, 1931, p. 32), possessed of great healing
'°Brinton (1888, p. 37) in writing of the survival of curing rites among the
Ontario Delaware, states: "I enquired in particular if there are any remnants of
the curious adoration of the twelve sacred stones described by Zeisberger. I found
that the custom of the sweat lodge still prevails. The steam is generated by pour-
ing water on hot stones. This is done by the medicine man who is known as
Quechksapiet. He brings in one stone after another and pours water on it until
it ceases "to sing" and invariable he uses precisely twelve stones."
19
power. Besides its specific name, the term, "our Grandfather," is ap-
pHed ceremonially to fire. Rocks are also known as "our Grandfathers."
Water is regarded as a powerful spiritual force and is known as "our
Mother."
Some cases of illness can be cured in one treatment while in others
it is necessary to hold several meetings in the sweat lodge. The latter
is known by a term meaning "temporary sweating." New stones are
secured for each treatment. It is considered advisable to let one or
more days elapse between treatments, as determined by the physical
condition of the patient. The latter is occasionally massaged by the
doctor, who first warms his hands upon a hot stone before rub-
bing the aflfected area. Often it is necessary also for the healer to
blow hot or cold air upon the patient. For the first the shaman's
breath is warmed by means of a hot drink. In Delaware terminology
this is known as "warm breath." In case of fever or exhaustion the
"cooling breath" is used. One doctor had so much supernatural
power in this respect that his breath would cause a swelling wherever
it struck the body. It was therefore necessary for him to exercise
great care in this type of treatment to avoid bringing undue discomfort
to the patient.
Following the ritual performance in one of the Delaware peyote
cults, it is customary at the present time for the participants, both men
and women, to go into the sweat house (Petrullo, 1934, p. 95). This
usually occurs before sunrise. The sweat house for this assemblage
accommodates about twenty persons. The equipment is precisely the
same as for the performance previously described, but there is no
ritual connected with this performance. Men and women enter together
and drink hot water to induce perspiration. In case of nausea, they
chew "Osage tobacco" (wild sage) and swallow the juice- This plant,
according to my informant, has a very strong taste together with
astringent qualities. The sweating period is followed by a plunge. ^^
" This is comparable to the semi-social aspect of the rite as described by Hecke-
welder, op. cit., pp. 225-226. "These sweat ovens are generally at some distance
from an Indian village where wood and water are always at hand. The best order
is preserved at those places. The women have their separate oven in a different
direction from that of the men, and are subjected to the same rules. The men
generally sweat themselves once and sometimes twice a week; the women have
no fixed day for this exercise, nor do they use it as often as the men." He also
states: "... A cryer goes his rounds calling piiiwok, 'go to sweat.' Everyone
brings his small kettle which is filled for him with the potion which at the same
time serves him as a medicine, promotes profuse perspiration, quenches his thirst."
20
The Medicine Bundle
The existence of the medicine bundle complex ^^ among the Delaware
has apparently escaped the notice of recent investigators in the field of
Delaware ethnology. Both Harrington (1921, pp. 36, 42, 49, 65-66)
and Speck (1931, p. 42) mention the use of personal and tribal fetishes
but omit any reference to the bundle concept, as such. This is doubtless
due to the deeply religious convictions of the informants who regard
such objects as too sacred to be displayed or discussed in the unclean
environment in which they must perforce live. It was not until the
conclusion of the work that I learned of my informant's ownership of
a medicine bundle. He was reticent about speaking in detail of its con-
tents, but inferred that it was made up of personal charms and
medicines.
While the use of the medicine bundle among the Delaware is not
accompanied by the highly developed ritualism observed by the Medicine
Bundle societies ^^ of the central Algonkian tribes and others in adjacent
areas, there is a simple code, characteristic of the trend of Delaware
religious thought, to which the owners of the bundles adhere.
The Delaware bundle is said to contain sacred articles which are
assembled in accordance with injunctions laid down by one's spiritual
guardian in a dream vision. In addition to pieces of roots for use in
concocting secret formulae, a bundle usually contains personal tokens
such as a bird claw, a feather, a piece of bone or horn, an animal tooth,
a magic stone, or emergency gift.^* One man may have several or all
of the articles enumerated while others possess only one. Each case is
of course determined by the supernatural experience of the individual.
For example, men of the warrior class carry, besides their individual
charms, some particular medicine prepared for the exclusive use of
warriors. ^^ Hunters carry an animal lure also prepared from a formula
handed down from older generations, and carefully preserved. The
bundles of the herbal practitioners and sweat doctors contain portions
of rare roots and plants used in their healing practices. These different
" A term meaning "gathered together," used in speaking of the Medicine Bundle,
refers to objects forming a collection intended for magical practices.
"^ This engrossing subject has been dealt with in detail by Skinner, 1913, p. 91 ;
1920, pp. 168, 266; Hoffman, 1893, p. 75; Kroeber, 1907, p. 418; Densmore, 1929,
p. 93; Wissler, 1912, and 1916; Lowie, 1924 a, p. 335 ff.
" See medicine stone, p. 23.
'° See warrior medicine, pp. 34-35.
21
sacred objects are wrapped in buckskin or cloth to protect them against
exposure to unclean surroundings that might tend to defile such objects
of sacred authorship.
The way in which such supernatural tokens are obtained by their
owners is illustrated by the following. Once a man dreamed of seeing
a plant, called by the Delaware, "frost" or "ice weed." He heard a
voice which said to him, "I am strong and great. Stronger than any
other plant because I stay green longer in the fall. Use me and I will
make you strong." The man then went out and obtained a specimen of
the plant for his medicine bundle. In another case a boy saw a horned
toad in his vision and knew that it was to be his guiding spirit. He
went out in search of a horned toad and finding one, picked it up, saying,
"Give me your horn." At the command the toad gave the youth his
horn which the latter kept until an old man.
The medicine bundle is the most highly cherished material possession
of a chief, warrior or medicine man. He may possess one or more
bundles which he has the privilege later of bestowing upon another.
This seldom occurs until a man has reached an advanced age, the
period at which he feels inclined to transfer his power and super-
natural tokens to a younger man. The person chosen to be the
recipient of this sacred gift must be spiritually and physically clean.
He is called into conference with the older man several times before the
actual transfer is made. Then it is given to him with the admonition that
he must use the power wisely and keep the bundle from defilement to
avoid forfeiture of the sacred gifts. At times medicine bundles are
not transferred through the lack of a youth competent to deal with
matters of spiritual import. In such a case the bundle is buried with
the owner. Or, at the request of the owner, a bundle is given to a
relative or to one of his own class, i. e., a doctor or a warrior. Among
the Delaware, medicine bundles are never sold.
Medicine charms are believed to be extremely potent in the hands
of their owners. A man may commune with his guardian by means of
these material agents and thus secure spiritual guidance and aid in regard
to problems of a worldly character. Thus the medicine man seeks knowl-
edge during his diagnosis of the often perplexing cases brought to his
attention; the hunter, his mind filled with a keen desire for success in
the quest of game, concentrates on the token of his supernatural helper
during his appeal to the Giver of Game through prayer. Similarly, the
22
warrior desires information as to the location of the enemy; the chief
seeks for a clearer insight into tribal affairs in general.
So powerful are these agents of the spirit forces that if one speaks
to them against his enemies, he will have the power to attack the latter
by means of practices of a malevolent character. Such power is con-
sidered as basically evil and to be used only as a last resort. Super-
natural power, in general, is believed to be given to the Delaware to
accomplish good and not for matters of minor importance.
The Medicine Stone
A concretion secreted in the alimentary organs of certain ruminants
is known to have been highly prized by the peoples of Europe and the
Orient *® for its alleged magical and medicinal properties. This unusual
object is also known to and valued by the natives of the New World.^^
From the present-day Delaware, we have the following information
on the medicine stone, one of their most sacred and invaluable posses-
sions. It is comparable to the bezoar stone of Oriental fame and usually
has a similar function — as an antidote for poison. Although such ob-
jects are known to be present in the digestive organs of different animals,
that obtained from the blacktail deer (Odocoileus hemionus) is consid-
ered as the most potent variety. The Delaware call such a stone by the
term meaning "emergency gift." From its use in rubbing a wound
made by a snake or mad dog, it is sometimes known as "mad stone."
They are of varying shapes and sizes and serve as protective agents
for their owners. One may use such a charm to make medicine for
another who is seriously ill or injured. In the case of illness pro-
nounced fatal by others, scrapings from the medicine stone are infused
in hot water and administered as a tea. Complete recovery of the patient
is expected as a result. Wi-tapanoxwe relates how warriors of the
earlier period employed such a stone to heal fatal wounds. If it is
not possible to administer it as a tea, the stone is simply rubbed over
the body of the wounded person.
'° See article Bezoar in New International Encyclopedia, Vol. 3. Second Edition,
1924.
" I am indebted to Dr. John M. Cooper, Catholic University of Washington,
Washington, D. C, for access to his manuscript on The Bezoar in Aboriginal
American Culture.
23
CURATIVE PRACTICES AND HERBAL REMEDIES
HERBAL REMEDIES recorded here may be divided arbitrarily
into two groups — the simple and the compound. In the former
group, one, two, or three different plant parts are mixed to-
gether as contrasted with those remedies of the second group which
includes from seven to twenty vegetal substances, according to the
specific sickness encountered. My informant stated that "man needs
medicine made from many different plants to act upon his bodily organs,
afiflicted by the ills from which he suffers." Frequently Witapanoxwe
uses as many as fourteen different plant substances in making up
certain medicines, while other herbalists are said to compound
theirs from seven or more elements.^ Thus we may cite the predom-
inant occurrence of compound remedies among the Delaware in con-
trast to the simple remedies of the eastern and northeastern Algonkians
(Speck, 1917).
The bark preparations noted immediately below are called "single"
(simple) remedies by my informant, and are employed as a cathartic.
In preparing and administering these medicines, the correct procedure
should be carefully followed in each case. To avoid nausea, bark is
customarily removed from smaller twigs and branches rather than from
those of larger size. In the preparation of 1 b, c, d, and e, the branches
are not roasted as in 1 a.
1. (a) Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), "round nut tree." Three
slender branches are roasted in the open fire. The bark from each is
then removed, by peeling from the tip end ^ and tied in separate
bundles. A strong tea is made by boiling these three bundles of bark
together and large draughts taken occasionally. To remove bile from
the intestines, the treatment is continued for two days. The leaves
are scattered about the house to dispel fleas while the sap is a
good application for any inflammation. Juice from the green hull
of the fruit is rubbed over the infected area to cure ringworm,
"contagious skin disease."
' The native use of twelve different medicines which cause one to vomit and
"thus remove his sins" is mentioned by Zeisberger, op. cit., p. 134. Elsewhere
(p. 55) he states that occasionally the Indians are able to effect a cure with only
two or three kinds of roots. If a simple remedy does not bring relief, twenty or
more are used.
' To cause vomiting, the bark is peeled upward on the branch.
24
(b) Mulberry (Morus nigra), "surrounding berries tree."
(c) Yellow Birch (Betida littea), "yellow willow."
(d) White Ash (Fraxinus americana) , "brittle tree."
(e) Buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana) , "buckthorn."
2. Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), "accidentally thorned." The
bark of the following species, honey locust, prickly ash, wild
cherry, and sassafras are combined for a general tonic. This medi-
cine is used for a severe cough and to purify the blood.
3. Sycamore (Plantanns occidentalis), "shedding bark." The bark
of the sycamore and honey locust are steeped for a gargle to relieve
hoarseness and sore throat. Three chips taken from the east side
of the honey locust and sycamore trees are steeped together with
red oak bark and sweet flag root to make a hot drink for colds.
4- Chestnut (Aesculus glabra), "big acorn tree." Nuts ground up
and mixed with sweet oil or mutton tallow to make poultice for
earache. A nut carried in the pocket will relieve rheumatism.
Nuts ground up for use as fish poison in streams. This is known
as "fish peyote," as it makes them "dizzy" and they can be caught
easily.
5. Sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Bark of the root, together with
other bark, used as a blood purifier. In spring employed as a
beverage.
6. White Oak (Quercus alba), "gray tree." Bark is a valuable sub-
stance in Delaware medicine and is used in compounding many
remedies. For a severe cough, a tea is steeped from the bark. For
sore throat a stronger liquid is used as a gargle. Also makes an
excellent douche; liquid used to cleanse bruises and ulcers.
7. Pin Oak (Q. palustris), "black acorn tree." Infusion of inner
bark given for intestinal pains. The acorns are edible.
8. Red Oak (Q. rubra), "red oak." Bark is steeped to make a tea
for severe cough. Will also relieve hoarseness.
9. Black Oak (Q. velutina) "bitter tree." Inner bark used for
colds and hoarseness. Infused for tea and gargle.
10. Redbud (Cercis canadensis), "red bud." Bark steeped in cold water
for a drink to reduce fever and stop vomiting.
25
11. Cottonwood (Populits deltoides, or Sargentii), "tree with moving
leaves." Bark from the black haw, wild plum, and cottonwood are
combined to make tea for weakness and debility in women.
12. Black Haw (Viburniini prunifolium), "berries-in-sight tree."
Bark taken from the root is combined with leaves of bloodroot,
wild plum, pearly everlasting, "stone root" and bayberry to make
a tonic to strengthen the female generative organs.
13. Elm (Ulinits americana) . Inner bark steeped and liquid drunk for
colds and severe coughs.
14. Dogwood (Cornits florida). The root is combined with others to
make a tonic. In another variety (C. canadensis) , "arrow wood,"
the bark is combined with that of other species to relieve body pains.
15. Peach (Primus persica) leaves are infused to expel pin worms
and to stop vomiting in children. A small quantity is sweetened
and is drunk occasionally until relief is felt.
16. Holly (Ilex opaca) is designated as the "red berry tree." It is
believed that holly grows up near the place where a person was
frightened. If one became suddenly frightened, he remarks, "I
guess holly will grow here because I was scared so badly."
17. Grape (Vitis rupcstris). Vine is combined with bloodroot, pearly
everlasting, "star root" (sp.f), false spikenard, peppermint, and
sarsaparilla to make a tonic for frail women. It is also said to
increase fertility.
18. Fox Grape (V. vulpina), "sour berry tree." Sap of the vine
valuable in treating leucorrhea and when removed in spring, bene-
ficial for the hair.
19. Elder (Sambucus canadensis), "hollow tree." The leaves and
stems act as a blood purifier, also used in the treatment of jaundice.
From the elder flower, a tea is made for colic in infants. The
bark scrapings are used in making a poultice for sores, swellings,
and wounds.
20. Hops (Humulus lupulus). The blossoms are employed in medi-
cine for nervousness. A small bag filled with hops and heated is
useful as an application to relieve earache or toothache. A tea made
from the plant acts as a tonic-stimulant.
21. Dwarf Sumac (Rhus copallina), "kinnikinnick tree." Roots
pounded and applied as poultice for sores and skin eruptions. An
26
infusion of the leaves is used to cleanse and purify skin eruptions.
To treat venereal disease an infusion of the roots is taken. The
berries are useful in making a mouth w^ash.
22. Wild Cherry (Primus serotina), "excrement tree." Bark used
as remedy for diarrhea. Also combined vi^ith other roots and bark
as a tonic. The fruit is sometimes used to make cough syrup.
23. Ginseng (Panax qninque folium) is named "man and woman," a
term descriptive of the human-like form of the root. The terms
"Grandmother" and "Grandfather" are also given the plants, be-
cause they are usually found growing in pairs. The root is regarded
as being very potent by the Delaware and may be used in treating
either sex. In treating males, the "male root" is used, and vice
versa. Plant is believed to have retreated, like others, before the
advance of civilization and hence, is rarely found. It possesses
medicinal properties which will, in many cases, effect cures where
all others have failed. The root is diced in small particles, a table-
spoon of which is added to a cup of hot water to make tea. The
root is used with other plant parts as a general tonic.
24. "Frost" or "Ice" Weed (Helianthemium canadense), was revealed
to a Delaware in a dream in which the plant said, "I am strong and
great. Stronger than any other plant because I remain green later
in fall. Use me and you will become strong." Root used in making
poultice for sore throat. Tea infused from plant taken at same
time.
25. Poke (Phytolacca decandra), "purple berry." The root of this
plant is combined with the bark of sarsaparllla and mountain
grape to make a remedy for rheumatism. It acts as a stimulant
and blood purifier. In preparing the medicine, the root of the poke
is first thoroughly roasted and then crushed. To avoid nausea, a
small dose is customary.
26. Poison Ivy (Rhus toxicondrendon), "irritating" or "blistering"
vine. Not poisonous to everyone. The root contains valuable medic-
inal properties. A poultice is made from the roasted, crushed root.
A salve effective for chronic sores and glandular swellings is made
from the roots of poke (roasted), bittersweet, yellow parilla, and
the bark of elder. These ingredients are placed in boiling tallow or
lard, to which is added a medium-sized piece of beeswax. A more
modern formula calls for the addition of one-fourth ounce of
carbolic acid and two ounces of menthol crystals.
27
27. Angelica (Angelica atropurpurea) , "to mix with smoking (to-
bacco)." Root used for stomach disorders; seeds sometimes mixed
with smoking tobacco.
28. Anise (Pimpinella anisum). Root used as a cathartic and stomach
tonic.
29. Yellow Jasmine (Gelsemhim sempervirens), "yellow root." Root
used as blood purifier.
30. The root of Staghorn Sumac (Rhus typhina), "Cherokee su-
mac" is combined with that of "horse-hobble weed" or purple
cone-flower (Braimeria purpurea) as a remedy for venereal dis-
ease. The patient should refrain from eating sour fruit and greasy
foods. Water should be taken freely and often.
31. Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatiim). The root and occasionally
the leaves are infused as a treatment for chills and fever.
32. GoLDENROD (SoUdago juncea). The green leaves are chewed or
infused to cure diarrhea. Also used to reduce fever.
33. WiNTERGREEN (Gaiilthcria procumbens). Entire plant is com-
pounded with poke root, mullein leaves, wild cherry bark, and
black cohosh bark (Sp.?) to make a tonic. Beneficial also for
rheumatism.
34. Blackberry (Rubus nigrobaccus). The vine is combined with
wild cherry bark to cure dysentery.
35. Dock (Rumex obtusifoUus and R. crispus), "curly leaf." Root
used as a blood purifier and remedy for jaundice.
36. Black Snakeroot (Cimicifuga racemosa) , stone root (Collin-
soniaf), and root of elecampane (Inula helenium) are compounded
to make a tonic.
37. Golden Aster (Chrysopsis mariana). Tea made from the root to
quiet infants. Also acts as tonic for sickly children.
38. "Turkey Foot" (Sp.?), "leaves like turkey foot." Plant tip and
root infused as a tea for weak women.
39. Prairie Moss (Sp.?). Leaves used as poultice for sore throat.
Plant infused as tea, called "tonsillitis medicine."
40. Cardinal Flower (Lobelia cardinalis). An important plant for
the Delaware herbalist. Tea made from the root used for typhoid.
Administered in small quantities because of its strength.
41. Sage Willow or "red root" (Salix tristis). Contains valuable
medicinal properties of importance to Delaware herbalists. Tea
28
made from root for women sufifering displacement of womb. Used,
together with roots of prairie willow (Salix humilis), little burr
(Dentaria diphylla) and false Solomon's seal to make a tea to treat
scrofula and venereal disease.
42. Rattle-box (Crotolaria saggitalis), "blown-over weed." A medi-
cine for venereal disease is made from the root. It is a very strong
narcotic.
43. Hedge Nettle (Stachys palustris), "smart weed," is combined with
common nightshade, "pretty flower," and button snakeroot to make
a medicine for venereal disease.
44. Purple Cone-flower (Brauneria purpurea), "white flower." This
is called "Yuchi gonorrhea medicine" by my informant. A tea
made from this root alone will cure an advanced case of venereal
disease in seven days.
45. Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiaefolia). Plant used in making a
poultice to apply as a preventative of blood poison.
46. Button Snakeroot (Eryngium aquaticmn) , "to vomit." Used as
a medicine for intestinal tape and "pin" worms.
47 Horsemint (Monarda punctata). A tea made of the plant for
fever, and to bathe face of patient.
48. Bayberry (Myrica sp.). The bark is used as a blood purifier, and
for kidney trouble.
49. Sweet Fern (Myrica asplenifolia). Plant is steeped and liquid
applied to blisters. Also combined with mallow root, elder flowers
and dwarf elder to treat inflammation of the bladder. It is also
good for scrofula. Is a blood purifier and useful in removing mucus
from the lungs.
50. PiPSissEWA (Chimaphila umbellata). The plant is steeped and the
liquid is applied to blisters. It is also combined with mallow root
( ?), elder flowers and dwarf elder bark in medicine for inflamma-
tion of the bladder. Also for scrofula. Purifies the blood and
tends to aid in removing mucus from the lungs.
51. False Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides). A tea is made from
the leaves to relieve stomach pains.
52. Wild Carrot (Daucus carota). Blossoms picked at full bloom are
steeped as tea for diabetics.
53. Yarrow (Achillea millefolium). A tea is made from the plant for
disorders of the liver and kidneys.
29
54. Prickly Ash (Xanthoxylum americanum) . "Bush with briars" or
"Httle thorn bush." Inner bark steeped as medicine for heart
trouble. A small quantity is taken each day for three days, and after
three days, the treatment is continued.
55. WiNTERGREEN (Gaiiltlieria procwnhens). A tea made from entire
plant is taken for kidney disorders.
56. Cattail (Typlia latifolia). Medicine made from the root to dis-
solve kidney stone.
57. Partridge Berry (Mitchella rcpens). A tea is made for sup-
pressed menstruation. This remedy strengthens the female genera-
tive organs. In the treatment of rheumatism, the "herbal steam"
treatment is considered of great value. A strong infusion is made
from the roots or twigs of one of the medicinal plants useful for
this type of sickness. The patient is seated with his feet in a basin
of the liquid, made very hot, and a blanket then wrapped around
the lower part of his body. Cold damp cloths are applied to the head
during the steam treatment which lasts an hour or less. The upper
portion of the body may also be steamed by raising the level of the
blanket. This treatment is effective in reducing muscular swellings
and stiff, aching joints. The following vegetal materials are used
singly in this way :
58. (a) Bull Thistle (Cirsiiim lanceolatum), "pretty flower."
(b) Poke.
(c) "Frost Weed."
(d) "Expert remedy," unidentified.
(e) Cedar (Juniper us virginiana)^ particularly the twigs.
(f) Hemlock (Tsiiga canadensis).
(g) Dwarf Sumac.
(h) Hop Vine.
59. Blue Flag (Iris versicolor), "blue flower" or "top like calamus."
Medicine made from the root is valuable for rheumatism, scrofula
and disorders of the liver and kidneys. Combined with the root of
sevenbark (Hydranga aboresccns), it is used for gall stones.
60. Great Mullein (Verbascum thapsus), "gray leaf." The leaves
are heated and applied to the joints and body to allay rheumatism
pain and reduce swelling. These leaves are combined with coltsfoot
(Petasites pabnata), plum root, and glycerine to make a healing
Speck, 1931, pp. 47, 127, 151, 171.
30
syrup for catarrh, coughs, and lung trouble. In preparing this rem-
edy, the mullein must be gathered before the plant blooms.
61. Burdock (Arctium minus), "big-leaved burr." A tea made from
the root is good for rheumatism. Acts as a stimulant and blood-
purifier.
62. Butterfly Weed (Asclepias tiiherosa), "where butterflies light."
Root used as a remedy for pleurisy and rheumatism. Also admin-
istered to women following child-birth. Rattlesnake plantain
(Epipactis pubescens) has the same term and is used in the same
way.
63. Elecampane (Inula helenium), "leaves like Indian cabbage." Root
used in making a tonic, useful for strengthening digestive organs
and to remove mucus from the intestines.
64. TooTHWORT (Dentaria diphylla), "little burr." Root combined with
other as a stomach remedy.
65. False Indigo (Baptisia tinctoria). Liquid infused from root used
in cleansing cuts and ulcers. Also employed as a douche.
66. JiMSON Weed (Datura stramonium) . The leaves are crushed and
applied to fresh wounds as a poultice. A salve for treating piles
is made by pounding the seeds and mixing with tallow.
67. Common Plantain (Plantago major), "path weed." Leaves
crushed and used as a poultice. Plant combined with other plant
parts is useful in treating female diseases.
68. Climbing Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), "yellow root." Root
prepared as a poultice or salve for skin eruptions. Tea made from
the root will clear up liver spots.
69. Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus). A tea made from
the root is useful in treating whooping cough. The leaves are
crushed and used as a poultice to allay pain. People suifering from
epilepsy often roll up a small portion of the leaf and chew it.
70. Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus), "bitter." Root used in making
tea useful for coughs, colds, and suppressed menses. Combined
with sassafras root for intestinal pains.
71. Heal- All (Prunella vtdgaris). The plant top is used to make a
cooling drink and body wash for fever.
72. Skull-Cap (Scutellaria galerictdata). The plant top is a stomach
stimulant, and a laxative.
73. Catnip (Nepeta cataria), "smells good." The leaves are prepared
with peach seed to make a syrup, very beneficial for children.
31
74. Motherwort (Leonuriis cardiaca). A tea is made from the leaves
which is efifective for female diseases.
75. False Solomon's Seal (Smilacina stellata). The root is combined
with others as a medicine to cleanse the system and stimulate the
stomach. A remedy also for leucorrhea.
76. May Apple (Podophyllum peltaium), "flower hangs down." A
spring tonic and a laxative are made from the root.
77. Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis). For general debility, a pea-
sized piece of root is taken every morning for thirty days. Com-
bined with other roots for a stomach remedy. The plant root pro-
vides the face paint used in the Big House Ceremony of the Dela-
ware.
78. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). A laxative-tonic obtained
from the plant.
79. Virginia Snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria). Used singly or
combined with wintergreen as a tonic.
80. Fringed Gentian (Gentiaua crinita). A tea made from the root
acts as a blood-purifier and stomach-strengthener.
81. Black Snakeroot (Cimicifuge racemosa), elecampane and stone
root are combined to make a tonic.
82. Milkweed (Asclepias sp.). A tea made from the pounded and
steeped roots of the five species of milkweed is a cure for epileptic
fits in those born during certain phases of the moon. Such dis-
turbances periodically occur during a particular moon-phase period.
83. Peyote (LopJwphora williainsii), "Our Father," is known to have
been used to treat periodic fits, and is regarded as a sure cure
for tuberculosis.* Witapanoxwe carries a small, fringed leather
bag, tied with deerskin thongs, containing several peyote "beans"
or buttons for use in case of emergency. Certain Delaware sub-
scribing to the "Wilson cult," wear a small beaded bag containing
peyote, around their necks as a protection against illness. This
talisman is even regarded as an advisory agent of approaching
* It is said that this highly valued and potent medicine was revealed to a woman
in a dream who gave the knowledge of it to her people. It may be eaten with or
without the usual ceremonial rites. For a study of the Peyote rites among the
Delaware at Dewey and Anadarko, Oklahoma, see Petrullo, 1934. For more
details, consult SafTord, 1916, pp. 387, 424; Harrington, 1921, pp. 185-190; and the
more recent study of LaBarre, 1938.
32
domestic and tribal crises. Witapanoxwe is not convinced of the
truth of this statement, but claims that he merely carries his own
supply for medicinal purposes.^
84. Cactus (Opuntia vulgaris) is called "thorny, useless." Witapano-
xwe remarked that the Oklahoma negroes singe off the spines and
apply a sliced portion to their corns to allay pain.
Miscellaneous Beliefs
1. To draw out frost bites, walk in the snow barefooted. Rubbing
snow on the ears will bring relief.
2. Frost or dew gathered in late fall and rubbed on the body will
prevent skin eruptions.
3. Water that collects in hollow trees or rocks is believed to have
medicinal value.
4. Mud applied to a burn will take out "the fire."
5. To cure a child from slobbering, catch a number of minnows and
have the child hold them in his mouth. Repeat this several times a
week until the cure is effected.
6. To cure a child of bed-wetting, feed him portions of a roasted
"timber rat" * This is believed to effect a sure cure. My informant
and a companion once killed and roasted such a rodent, and both
agreed that the flesh was palatable and not unlike that of squirrel.
They were reticent, however, as to the therapeutic effects.
7. Relief is obtained in the case of whooping cough, if the mother
first suckles a puppy and then her child.
8. A spider web appHed to a flesh wound will stop the flow of blood.
9. Excrement of cattle or of poultry is employed as a poultice for
boils.
10. Skunk-oil is regarded as a valuable remedy for colds and croup.
For children the average dose is from three to five drops. A small
quantity may be used externally on the throat and chest. Oil ob-
tained from geese is employed similarly for colds. Skunk scent or
rabbit urine is put into the ear to relieve earache. Deer and otter
scent are also useful for medicinal purposes.
"This practice corresponds to one general among Eastern Algonkian peoples—
that of carrying a piece of "muskrat root" (Acorus calamus) about the person as
a disease preventive. A piece of the root is chewed in case of sudden illness.
* Compare use of a white-footed mouse for the same purpose among the Gayhead
Indians (Tantaquidgeon, 1930, p. 20).
33
11. A syrup made by roasting onions is taken for colds. For infants and
small children the syrup is sweetened and a few drops taken clear
or in milk.
12. Mutton tallow is an emollient for chapped and irritated skin. It is
used to make ointment.
13. Muscular cramps may be relieved by bathing the affected parts with
urine.
14. A tea made from roasted, charred pig hoofs is beneficial for colds.
15. For snake bite suck the venom from the wound with a hollow piece
of deer antler.
16. Treatment of sick horses. Years ago, after their migration west-
ward, the Delaware used horses for travel. Often their animals
would become ill during hunting activities on the Western plains.
This was believed due to unsuitable drinking water or from eating
poisonous weeds. Other disabilities were due to "bots" ^ or colic.
For colic, strong tobacco juice, or gun-powder dissolved in hot water
was administered. The most effective treatment was to throw a
bucket of very hot water containing finely chopped bits of weasel
hide '' over the horse. Then the owner would force his weight up
and down on the animal's abdomen or occasionally, beat it with a
wet, heavy blanket for ten or fifteen minutes. The horse soon re-
covered and was again on his feet.
Warrior's Medicine
Warriors long ago also received gifts from supernatural agencies
which enabled them to excell in feats of bravery. Their power came in
dream-visions in which the identity of the supernatural was made known.
Sometimes a power-song was granted at the same time. Certain men
were appointed as leaders of the warriors and custodians of the secret
formulae, from which a particular preparation called "warrior medi-
' The larv2e of certain flies. Eggs are laid on the inside of the animal's foreleg,
gain entrance into the blood stream and are carried to the alimentary tract where
incubation takes place.
' The hide of the so-called "spotted weasel" is used for this purpose. My infor-
mant had never seen this animal but it had been described to him by his mother.
It may refer to the ordinary weasel at the period of seasonal pilage change from
brown to white. The species known to the Delaware are the Bonaparte (Mustela
c'lcoguani), and New York weasel (M. novcboracensis), Anthony, 1928, p. 102.
34
cine," ^ was prepared. Such formulce were transferred from the war-
riors of one generation to another, in native theory only those known
to hve clean, pure lives being the recipients. A warrior carried a bundle
which contained medicine and personal charms. The medicine stone *
was used only in times of crisis.
Use of Wampum in Healing
Shell wampum is used in treating cases of paralysis or similar
afflictions believed due to failure of parents to fulfill certain ceremonial
obligations or to breaking certain taboos. Before receiving treatment
the patient presents one yard of wampum ^° to the medicine man.
Potency is added to the herbal medicines by the wampum and enables
the doctor to diagnose the case in a brief time."
The Otter Medicine
The Otter ^" was regarded as the most sacred of all water animals. It
figured in a ceremony described by Harrington ^^ in which the spirit of
the Otter was propitiated. In order to capture the animal a special lure
was made. The formula for preparing such medicine ^* was in the custody
of an old man of sufficient spiritual purity to withstand its great power.
Certain roots,^^ cleaned by the old man in running water to the accom-
paniment of a song, were used. In doing so he was obliged to walk
against the current, throwing water upon his tracks to conceal them.
A secluded place was sought out for this preparatory rite. The medicine
was hidden away from his dwelling lest it lose potency through the
proximity of a woman. The medicine was considered very effective in
luring other water animals, since it was a gift from the Otter, the most
powerful of such creatures.
' According to Zeisberger (op. cit., p. 127) "The captains and others secure a
beson (medicine) to preserve themselves from arrow and ball." Converse (1910,
p. 168) notes the use of medicine made from the roots of corn, which the men
drank. It afforded them such supernatural protection that "they could not be shot
even though they were shot at seven times."
" See page 23.
" Measured from the shoulder to the wrist.
" The function of wampum in healing and in the ceremony of the Big House
is discussed by Speck, 1931, pp. 52-53.
'^ Lutra canadensis.
" 1921, p. 176.
" Known as "otter medicine."
"The same plant, "pull up" (Sp.f) is also used in preparation of love charms
(see p. 13).
35
The Dog as a Vicar of Children
Upon the birth of a Delaware child, it was given a pet ^* to serve as
the guardian of its health. If there was sickness about, the Delaware
believed that it would be visited upon the dog instead of its little mas-
ter. The animal was thought to say, "I am only a dog, the child is
more precious." A small bag containing charcoal was tied around the
pet animal's neck by the child's parents. Frequently they would talk
to the dog. If the animal died, it was buried and the child given another
pet. However, if the child fell sick and died, a release ceremony was
performed " by placing a string of wampum about its neck, thus freeing
the animal.^*
Notes on Pregnancy and Child-birth
The prospective mother is advised to eat sparingly. Sour foods
should not be eaten during the final stage of pregnancy as they are
believed to cause contraction of the muscles. Onions and cabbage are
also excluded from the diet. Salt is forbidden both before and after
pregnancy, as it is thought to stop the flow of blood. Lifting heavy
objects should be avoided during pregnancy and for a period of a month
after delivery. A pregnant woman should not gaze at a deformed per-
son or make fun of him, as it might affect her child. Care is also
taken to avoid being frightened by dogs and other animals.
The woman is usually attended by a midwife who is given gifts
of calico, tobacco, etc., from the woman's husband. To women over
thirty years of age, a special medicine is given to shorten the period of
labor.^^ The delivery is made in a kneeling position. Immediately after,
a tea made from "pleurisy root" is administered. The navel cord is cut
off about one and a half inches from the body. A piece of lead about
two inches in diameter is bound to the body over the navel by a cloth.
This bandage is kept in place until healing is complete, to avoid pro-
trusion of the navel.
In case of still-birth, special treatment is given the mother. Still-birth
is believed due to the child being hurt. "The child-killing sickness of
women is hard to overcome." Twins are believed to have been con-
" Known by a term meaning "pet given child."
" See also p. 67 for release of a bear.
" As dictated by Wi-tapanoxwe.
" "The women know of certain medicines," according to Zeisberger (op. cit.,
p. 56), "which usually act quickly in case of hard labor, which sometimes occurs,
though not frequently."
36
nected within the womb. If one is hurt, the other will feel it even
though they are separated by many miles. A child whose mother died
during its birth, must not be allowed to cry. Someone must try to com-
fort it so that the spirit of the dead mother may not injure, or even kill
the foster parent.
Birthmarks are an indication that both parents have experienced diffi-
culties with other people. During his youth one man conversed with a
dead person in a vision. The skeleton said to him, "You should know me
by the mark on your children. You will know more when they are born."
All of his children (boys) had a characteristic pecularity about the eyes,
lacking control of the lids so that during the day they blinked con-
stantly. Sometimes a birthmark in the shape of a leaf or berry appears
on the child. This is attributed to a dream by the mother. The fruit
means good luck and long life. A mark formed like a reptile is consid-
ered an evil omen.
While nursing the child, the mother must refrain from intercourse
with any man other than her husband so that the infant may not have
diarrhea.
A few notes were obtained on the treatment of the hair and teeth of
children.
When a child's hair is cut, it is left in some out-of-the-way place. ^^
It was believed that if the birds used it in building their nests, the child
would sufifer from headaches. • If the remains were burnt, it would cause
the hair to become brittle.-^
During the teething period, a little bag containing finely crushed
charcoal is hung about the child's neck. The latter chews upon it to
ease his aching gums. A loose milk tooth is pulled out by means of a
string, its removal allowing the permanent tooth to grow in straight.
The extracted tooth is taken outdoors by the child and thrown in the
direction of the east, with the words "My tooth I place down here. I
know when you return I will feed you white beans."
A child's nails are trimmed with a knife or scissors. Care is taken
not to lose any of the nail trimmings, which are carried into the woods
and left upon a stump. At the same time the following words are ad-
dressed to the Owl : "Grandpa, I now give you these, your grandchild's
nails, to make frames for your eyes."
''"This and the following paragraph were recorded by Eugene Golomshtok,
University of Pennsylvania, 1930.
" In adult life gray hair, an indication of longevity, is not pulled out. Its removal
would be displeasing to the Creator as a lack of respect for the aged.
37
WITCHCRAFT
A TRADITION still existing among the Delaware relates of the
development of witchcraft among the Nanticoke ^ and its intro-
duction among the former prior to the period of their westward
migration. The Nanticoke are said to have possessed a very powerful
medicine which certain of them decided to use for malevolent purposes.
Thereafter they went among the Delaware causing sickness which in
most cases proved fatal. The Delaware people declined in numbers,
but although greatly alarmed, were unable to destroy the guilty ones.
Finally one night a man saw two large owls in a tree. He shot them.
Upon reaching the spot where they had fallen, the bodies of two strange
men were found.- It was decided that these were responsible for the
black magic. Later two women arrived, searching for their husbands.
When told the story of the owls and their fate, the women declared
these to have been their husbands who had transformed themselves in
order to work evil. This, according to the Delaware, marked the in-
troduction of witchcraft into the tribe.
The present-day Delaware consider witchcraft to be an evil practice
and the lowest form of shamanistic activity. There are, however, occa-
sions when such power may be, as my informant phrased it, "legitimately
used." If necessary to preserve one's life, it's use is not considered
evil. This power was of such great force and potency that only the
greatest shaman could break the spell inflicted by a witch. It is believed
that the last of the witches died many years ago, their evil medicine
buried with them.
Those men and women known to be adept in black magic usually re-
ceived their malevolent power in dreams. Certain of them, however,
acquired it of witches who before death transferred their power to
others. Such witches who carried on their evil practices at night were
called "night travellers." As a rule they did not mingle with other
'A statement by Zeisberger (op. cit., p. 126) runs "By the Nanticokes the
Indians have been instructed in the use of a pecuhar kind of poison called
mattapassigan meaning poison." This is probably the term translated here as
"medicine for gaining influence," or "witchcraft." See Speck, 1937a, p. 135-142.
' This incident is contrary to a current belief among the Delaware and Nanticoke
that a transformed person, if wounded, does not die until he reaches his destina-
tion and resumes his natural form.
38
people during the day lest they betray their evil power in some way,
and thereby be accused. Their chief activity seems to have been that
of annoying people, especially the sick, and of seeking revenge upon
their rivals and enemies through use of their powerful medicine. But
little is known of the actual nature or content of such medicine since it
was always handled with the greatest secrecy. It is said, however, that
such magic potions were concealed in small clay vessels, from which a
small portion was removed. This was placed in the miniature pouch
containing the supernatural token, by which the witch effected his
transformation at will. A feather, claw, tooth, hair, or other part of a
bird or animal capable of exerting evil influence, formed the medium
of transformation. The small skin bag, "witch pouch," was carried
suspended from a cord passing over one shoulder and across the body.
It is said that a witch was unclothed as he travelled through the air, all
the necessary equipment being carried in the pouch.
The clay medicine vessel was left in his dwelling by the witch. When
one of the latter was taken and killed, his bowl was always sought and
buried with him. Only by such an action could his power be com-
pletely destroyed. It was believed that if a witch lit his pipe before
setting out upon his nefarious pursuits, he must return before the
tobacco had completely burned out. He dares not stay longer lest he be
discovered. A witch killed by a person lacking supernatural power will
not die until his return home; if slain by a shaman, however, he suc-
cumbs immediately and is transformed into his human form. In former
days a chief was free to order a witch put to death. The victim was
dispatched by a blow from a war club and buried, together with his evil
medicine.
My informant differentiated between a witch and a conjurer, indi-
cating that the latter used his power for both good and evil, whereas all
the activities of the witch were for malefic purposes. He related the
following incidents which involved witchcraft.
My mother told of the time she was bewitched. When a young
girl, an older man wished to marry her. He asked her parents, but
my mother refused his proposal. This made him very angry. Soon
she became ill and as the cause was not known, a sweat doctor was
called. Upon being given some tobacco, he set out to learn the
cause of the illness. After a few visits, the doctor said that she was
bewitched. Her parents could recall no one who might be re-
sponsible except the rejected suitor. After some time, a small bone
39
came from one of her fingers. It had been sent into her body by the
witch. The sweat doctor had cured her.
The same witch wished to marry another girl. She was very
young and considered the most beautiful girl on the reservation. As
my mother had done, she refused the suitor, saying, "Why, I
wouldn't marry that old man, and, besides, I'm too young to marry."
When told of her answer, the old man said, "From this time on, if
she ever sees her beauty again, it will be a surprise to me." So he
set to work on her. In a few days she began to have trouble with
her eyes. One night she awakened to see a human form standing
over her. She felt peculiarly helpless and couldn't move. The
strange person moved his hands across her eyes and disappeared.
In a few days her eyes began to get sore and continued to grow
worse until at last her sight was completely gone.
Later it was discovered that this blind woman had become a
witch. She was married and had one daughter. The husband was of
the Seneca tribe. Once she told her cousin, "I am getting old and
there is something I wish to show you. Come to my house soon."
The cousin became suspicious and delayed the visit as long as pos-
sible. Finally she went. The old woman showed her a trunk con-
taining certain personal possessions, of which she was to take charge
after her death. In removing them a snake skin was brought out and
fell over the side of the trunk. While the visitor looked, the skin
moved and as they talked, it wriggled back into the trunk. It seemed
very unusual for the old blind woman to have such a snake skin.
Finally she said to her visitor, "Now, I am going to die and I don't
want this medicine to go out of the tribe. My daughter is old enough
to take charge of it and I can't give it to my husband since he comes
of a dififerent tribe." The old woman died without anyone knowing
what became of her medicine. Her cousin never admitted accept-
ing it, but after her death it was found and buried with her. And
that was the end of the witch medicine.
Those who were aware that a certain person was a witch rarely dared
expose him lest they or some member of their family would become be-
witched. This is clearly brought out in the following incident.
Once a Cherokee woman lived with the Delaware. She was very
large and powerful, and was known as "Large-waist Cherokee
Woman." Living with her was an adopted Delaware woman called
"Day-light Person." Both women were old. Once the Cherokee took
sick. Her friend believed that she went away at night, but never
succeeded in confirming it. Finally the Cherokee informed her that
she had l^een wounded. There was a bullet hole in her abdomen, in
which she had stuffed grass to stop the flow of blood. The grass,
however, had caused inflammation, so that she suffered greatly. At
40
last she told her friend that she wished to confess. She said, "Now
I am going to die and I want to tell you something. You must never
reveal it or you will die also. I was out travelling (sic) one night and
someone shot me." After her death, the other woman one day re-
vealed the secret to some friends and soon after died.
One of the last of the Delaware witches is said to have joined the
church, but continued to practice witchcraft. She believed that she could
not find salvation because she had sold her soul to the Devil, but by
joining the Church, thought she could secure some peace of mind.
The unnatural behaviour of birds or animals, as observed in dreams or
waking life, has led people to regard them as transformed witches.
Once a man saw a hog which, as he looked at it, seemed to grow longer
and longer. He started towards the animal, but it retreated into the
bushes. Thereupon he knew that it was a transformed person.
A second incident involved a young man returning home from a dance
early in the morning. The path led through the woods and over a hill,
at the foot of which stood a small cabin occupied by two old women.
As he rode along, an owl flew quite low over his head towards the cabin
where it disappeared. The young man told his people of the unusual
flight of the owl and every one agreed that it was one of the old women
retuiming home. Both had previously been suspected of witchcraft.
Another person had a similar experience with a boar. The man lived
alone and one night, while lying on his bed, the door opened and in
walked a large boar. The Indian, quite surprised by this, picked up a
poker from the fireplace and attempted to drive out the animal. The
boar ran around the table several times, without the man succeeding in
striking it. Finally it escaped through the door. The man hurried out-
side and looked around, but the animal had disappeared entirely.
Many years ago a man about forty years old married a woman who
was over seventy. My grandfather's brother lived with this couple.
He was a powerful medicine man. After some years the old woman
took sick and died. Her husband, a very vain, boastful individual,
did not conceal his pleasure over her death. He was heard to say,
"Now, I am the boss. See what I will do." My grandfather^ soon
atfer left the house. He walked away down the hill, frequently
looking back at the house. After a while he returned. He had left to
° In the Delaware kinship terminology one's grandfather's brothers are called
by the same term as the grandfather.
41
prepare a magical snare by which to entrap the boastful widower. He
set the snare at the doorstep of the house and went in and sat down.
However, a visitor was heard approaching, and my grandfather quickly
removed the snare so that an innocent person would not be harmed.
Afterwards the invisible snare was reset and the intended victim stepped
over it. Immediately after he suffered a congestive chill and by night,
he was dead. His wife's corpse was still unburied and the day after her
funeral, her husband's body was laid away. My grandfather did this to
show that supernatural forces did exist to punish inhuman boasting. His
people regarded this as an act of conjuring rather than witchcraft.
Persons who possessed the power of bewitchment were obliged to
take at least the life of one human every year. During their annual
meeting, if any witches had failed to do so, they deliberated upon the
choice of a victim at that time. The belief was held by the Delaware
that failure to do so would result in misfortune for the witch or his
family through sudden illness or accident. Before a witch died, he must
transfer his medicine to another to prevent the uncontrolled evil power
from reacting upon a member of his family.
DREAMS
ALL DREAMS are regarded as significant by the Delaware.
Some indicate good fortune and long life, while others fortell
sickness and death. One type of dream of unusual significance
is known by a term translated as "to dream ahead." Thus to dream
of berries, fruit, or vegetation during the winter season is a sign that
the dreamer will live to see the fruits of many seasons. To dream of
snow at any time of the year is an indication of long life.
It is believed that the recurrence of the same dream for several nights
is a sign of important news or even impending danger. In one such case,
mentioned by Witapanoxwe, his deceased parents appeared to him on
six consecutive nights to warn him of an event which occurred a num-
ber of years later.
Long ago dreams were particularly significant to the Delaware hunter.
Always in search of game animals for food, he was often led by the
animal supernaturals in dreams to the secret places of the game. Upon
awakening the hunter would offer a prayer and sacrifice a pinch of
tobacco in his camp fire. Then he would follow the trail indicated to
him in the dream.
42
It is customary for the Delaware to learn in dreams names suitable
for their children. During the later stages of pregnancy, the mid-wife
or an old man is asked to think of a name and that revealed in a dream
is later given to the child. Such a person need not necessarily be of
the child's immediate relatives. Occasionally a gift is made him for
this service.
To dream of catching fish in clear water is an indication that the
dreamer will soon receive a sum of money. To dream of muddy water,
on the other hand, is a sign of approaching illness or domestic difficulty.
To avert unpleasant dreams, a person smokes and prays to the
Creator, appealing to him for aid in propitiating the supernatural powers
responsible for such dreams. Cedar is also burned in the house to
cleanse it. If a child is troubled by dreams at night, cedar boughs are
soaked in water which is sprinkled over his person and the bed. This
is believed to keep evil spirits away.
The more conservative Delaware have always been dependent upon
dreams, and the appearance of certain celestial phenomena to warn them
of impending danger. The appearance of a comet, "war spirit," in the
heavens, is a sign of war. The "war dragon" flies through the air at
night and appears like a streak of fire. The direction towards which
its course is bent, is noted as the source of trouble. My informant re-
minded me of the appearance of such (Halley's comet) before the out-
break of the first World War. A falling star is also significant in war
time. A fugitive attempting to escape may be located by means of a
falling star, which the Delaware believe points to the spot of concealment.
To point to a falling star will bring bad luck to a person.
NATURAL SIGNS AND OMENS
A FEW BELIEFS of miscellaneous character are noted for other
natural phenomena. The two ends of the rainbow are believed
to point to water. A snowfall late in the spring, with the wind
to the north, indicates that the snow spirit is returning to his abode in
the north. In the fall an abundance of berries and nuts, thick foliage
and heavy corn husks all point to a long and severe winter.
A ringing or buzzing sound in the ear is a sign of impending death
or bad news. The ear in which the sound is heard indicates the direc-
tion from which the news may be expected.
43
The twitching of the left eye, in the case of my informant, is a warn-
ing of the death of a relative or friend. This takes place two weeks or
two months prior to the individual's death.
To see the suddenly disappearing likeness of a person is also a warn-
ing of death.
If a wolf barks at a person, it is an indication that he will live long.
Once Witapanoxwe, upon returning from the home of a sick person,
saw a rabbit run from the shelter of a grave towards the house he had
just left. To him it was a sign of the sick person's death in the near
future.
Babies and small children are not allowed to cry at night nor older
children to play after dark, for fear that their faces will become mis-
shapen.
A "double crown" in an individual is an indication of longevity
and superior intellect. The larger such features are, the longer is the
possession to live and enjoy the blessings bestowed upon him by the
Creator. An individual so blessed is assured of spiritual guidance and
is likely to excel in his life work.
If chickens continue to scratch for food during a rain, it is an indica-
tion that the rain will continue for some time. A cock crowing during a
storm says, "Going to clear ofif today." Crowing before midnight by the
bird indicates a change of weather. Crowing on the doorstep brings a
visitor.
If smoke from a fire rises during a storm, the rain will soon cease;
if it hovers near the ground, the weather will continue unsettled.
If the sun casts slanting rays through the clouds, it is "drawing
water." Rain will fall the following day.
When the wind blows the leaves "inside out," it is a sign of approach-
ing rain.
A circle around the moon foretells an approaching storm. The num-
ber of stars within the circle indicates the time it will arrive.
To hear the sound of talking or cutting wood over a great distance
indicates that a storm is brewing.
To see a hog carrying sticks of wood in its mouth is a sign of ap-
proaching rain.
"Three foggy mornings bring rain."
Thunder heard late in the winter foretells an early spring.
44
Loud reports from river ice indicate an early thaw.
A wolf "whinnying" (howling) denotes a change in the weather.
To see a cat washing its face is an indication of an unexpected visitor ;
sharpening its claws denotes that it will soon receive some meat.
DELAWARE FOOD RESOURCES
IN AN EARLIER section it was pointed out that according to native
belief, human health is dependent upon "pure, natural" food. Prod-
ucts of the fields and forests thus acquired a sacred character
(Speck, 1931, p. 50), and food and medicine in Delaware conception
were not totally unlike. It follows from this that the ailments
afflicted the Indians in modern times are considered as being due to a
departure from the ancient food regimen provided by the Creator. In-
vestigation of the food supply, and its methods of preparation, was
thought worthy of being taken up as part of the present phase of in-
quiry. The results are embodied in the present section, partly through
their bearing upon health as dependent upon food. Except for this
interrelation, the subject matter might seem to be more definitely an
economic one.
Maize
Among the food products used by the Delaware, Indian maize (Zea
mays) stands out as the staple vegetable product. Maize is believed to
provide nourishment for the soul as well as for the body. The rever-
ence for the Spirit of Maize ^ and for the processes of its preparation,
still survives among the Delaware.
Before presenting the data which deals with the preparation of corn
foods, it seems appropriate to mention native beliefs concerning the
origin of this sacred food.^ Maize, "original corn" or "common corn,"
is a gift from the Creator and in former times, according to Harring-
ton (op. cit., pp. 43, 141), was considered as one of the powerful
'Harrington, 1921, pp. 43, 193.
" For further information dealing with the maize complex in eastern North
America, particularly among the Iroquois, see Parker, 1910; Converse, 1910;
Waugh, 1916. The writer (1930) has noted the survival of certain traits indicat-
ing the presence of a rehgious rite in the early period among the southern New
England tribes. For the Southeastern peoples, consult Swanton, 1928 b., pp.
443-444.
45
Spirit Beings. Zeisberger (op. cit., p. 139) referred to Indian corn as
the "wife of the Indian," and, in describing certain ceremonial rites,
stated that they offered bear's flesh as a sacrifice to the corn. He also
said that corn was offered ceremonially to the deer and bear. Appar-
ently, Harrington {ibid., pp. 70, 195) did not learn the details of this
Corn-Spirit rite but the plant was, however, mentioned as a guardian
spirit. Mother Corn. There is an interesting ceremony recorded by
Dr. Speck ^ which the Delaware held to propitiate the spirit of Mother
Corn whom they considered to hold protection over all vegetation. It
is related that many years ago the corn crops began to decrease, so that
people became alarmed. The leading men of the tribe met and agreed
that to avert a famine, a ceremony must be performed to appease the
Maize Spirit. It was feared that she had become displeased and intended
to abandon her children, the Delaware. In this way the Corn Harvest
Rite originated and the performance of its ritual made the occasion of
a festival.
Corn also figured in the ceremonial diet of the participants of the
Big House Ceremony. Dr. Speck (1931, p. 7Z) notes that corn flour
and hominy were prepared and served by women attendants.* These
foods were prepared in wooden mortars kept expressly for ceremonial
use." As was previously stated, corn gruel or hominy is considered to be
the proper food for sick or convalescing persons.'
Indian corn of the variegated variety is known as "common" or
"original corn-" '^ Another variety, called "hollow corn," is ground into
flour for use in making bread.
" 1937a, pp. 79-90. In addition to the Corn Harvest rite and Corn Famine text,
Dr. Speck has an account of the Vegetation Ceremony now performed bi-annually
in the spring and fall. These gatherings are now called "Bread Dances" and in
addition to the performance of a ritual, afford an occasion for recreation. Both
men and women take part.
* The three men and three women who are responsible for the ceremonial
equipment and assist in a ceremonial role in the nightly performances during the
period of worship in the Big House. (Speck, 1931, pp. 71, 75.)
° A similar observance has been recorded for the Mohegan of Connecticut and
the Indians of Wampanoag extraction at Gay Head, Mass. See Tantaquidgeon,
1930, pp. 5-7.
° See Diet, p. 14.
' I have observed that my own group at Alohegan, Conn., and the people at Gay
Head, Mass., regard varied-colored corn to be the original variety and value it
very highly.
46
So far as could be ascertained, the use of corn medicine and fish
fertilizer in corn hills, is the only vestige of the ritualistic complex
now associated with maize cultivation.* My informant stated that in
former times it was customary to use medicine in which corn was
soaked to prevent cut worms. At present, seed corn is soaked in water
and hardwood ashes. Fish bones were burned and combined with wood
ashes and put in the corn hills as an oiTering to the Maize Spirit. Corn,
beans, and squash were planted together, but the legend of the Three
Sisters (corn, beans, and squash) ® so prominent in Iroquois mythology,
is absent.
The different varieties of maize are not planted near one another
because, it is said, "One will visit the other and forget to come back."
When corn matures one must share the first gathering with a less
fortunate tribesman or with some old person. This rule applies to all
crops as well as to the first kill.^° In order that people may continue to
receive the blessings of the Creator, every man is obligated to share his
first fruits and game with others, before partaking of them himself.
The practice of sharing vegetable food with a neighbor is known by
the term, "I feed you." A hunter offering animal flesh in observance
of this rule, used the phrase, "I give you some meat."
There are several methods employed in preparing corn as food.
(a) The husk is taken off and the ears laid in the sun until thor-
oughly dry. The grains may then be removed and pounded into
hominy grits.
(b) After removing the husk, the ears are boiled until thoroughly
cooked. They are allowed to cool, the grains removed with a
spoon and spread out to dry.
(c) The ears are laid before the fire and roasted.
Early records indicate that corn parched and crushed to meal, served
as a very nourishing food which was indispensable to the hunter or
' The Iroquois observed the practice of soaking seed corn in a medicine especially
prepared from certain plants. "In ancient times they enriched the soil with both
fish and shell." (Waugh, op. cit., p. 18.)
"The corn, bean and squash complex is discussed by Parker, 1910, p. 36, and
Converse, 1910, p. 63.
""According to Zeisberger {op. cit., p. 84) a hunter before setting out upon a
long hunting trip, would kill a deer or two and prepare a feast as a sacrifice to
the game. The old people as invited guests would pray for his good fortune
during the expedition.
47
traveller of that period." Zeisberger (op. cit., p. 22) mentions two
varieties of corn meal which the Indians prepared for use on long
journeys. Dried, unroasted corn was crushed to a meal or roasted in
hot ashes and then pulverized. The meal was mixed with sugar, or
water, and then eaten. Occasionally it was boiled in water. Hecke-
welder (op. cit., p. 195) says that their Psindamocan ^- or Tassmanane ^^
is the most nourishing and durable of their corn foods. He adds that
they preferred the blue, sweet variety for this meal, and that with but
a little of this food, they set out on long journeys.
Among the present-day Delaware the variety of corn used and the
methods of its preparation, are the same as noted by Zeisberger and
Heckewelder. However, due to the scarcity of "squaw" or variegated
corn, it is now regarded as a ceremonial food. The corn is thoroughly
parched and then pounded in the hominy mortars. The fine meal re-
sulting is hominy or "traveling food." This may be eaten either mixed
with water or with milk and sugar' The grits ground medium fine are
cooked with meat, the combined food being called, "whole face hominy,"
and used in the Masked Dance Ceremony.^* The coarse grits are called
"hail stones." These are cooked and eaten with milk.
Dry, unparched corn is made into flour or pounded medium fine
or coarse. The flour is used in making bread. A soft dough is
made and rolled into a flat cake like a biscuit which is dipped in cold
water and put in the ashes to bake. This bread is known as "put-in-the-
ashes bread." Bread dough to which is added chili beans or raisins
is put in greased vessels and baked in the Dutch oven. Dumplings
stuffed with chopped meat are boiled. The coarse hominy is boiled
"Williams (1827, p. ZZ) mentions no'kehick, a parched meal used by the
Narragansetts. He says in part, "I have travelled with neere 200 of them at once
neere 100 miles through the woods, every man carrying a little basket of this at
his back and sometimes in a hollow leather girdle about his middle sufficient for
a man for three days." Waugh (op. cit., p. 88) says, in writing of Iroquois corn
foods, "There was apparently no more popular hunting or traveling food than
this preparation in olden times. It was light and nourishing and could be eaten
cooked or raw." In the Mohegan-Pequot dialect it is known as yo'keg, "corn
parched and pounded," and among the Wampanoag descendants at Gay Head, it is
called no'cake. In the two latter groups it is prepared in precisely the same manner
as among the Delaware (See Tantaquidgeon, op. cit., pp. 6-7).
" I was unable to obtain a translation of this term but my informant recognized
it as pertaining to corn meal food.
" "Dried corn product."
'* See Speck, 1937a, p. 52.
48
and used in different ways. It may be eaten with milk and brown
sugar or with any kind of meat grease. A Httle salt may be added for
additional flavor.
Various kinds of nut meats are added to cooked hominy to make a
dish known as "nut hominy." Hominy and chopped meat (beef, pork
or other fresh meat) are cooked together and then allowed to stand
until sour. After hickory nuts are added to this mixture, the result is
called "soured nut" hominy.
Hulled corn is made by boiling dried corn in a strong liquid, made
alkaline by the addition of hard wood ashes. This process of prepara-
tion is long and arduous, since after hours of steady boiling it requires
many washings in clear, cold water to rinse the lye from the loose
hulls. This food may be eaten with milk and sugar, fried with potatoes
in pork fat, combined with fresh or dried meat for stew, or with beans
for succotash.
Wild Vegetable Foods
Long ago fruits and berries were preserved by drying, this practice
giving way in later times to canning and the manufacture of jelly and
jam. Dried fruit are prepared to eat in a number of ways. Grapes
are boiled, and the resulting liquid thickened by the addition of
corn meal, flour, or hominy grits. A boiled pudding is composed of
dough made of cornmeal and flour, or flour only, to which any variety of
berry, except strawberries, may be added. This dough is then placed
in a cloth bag and boiled. When ripe, persimmons are mashed and
spread on a cloth to dry for use in a bread called "persimmon breap."
With few exceptions all of the fruits and berries mentioned are made
into pies, puddings, preserves, fruit butters, and jams.
The various varieties of nuts are gathered in large quantities ; and
stored away for future use. These provide a nourishing supplernent
to the remainder of natural food stuffs. Nuts are eaten raw, roasted,
boiled, and frequently incorporated in other types of food. Edible
acorns are usually roasted.
With the introduction and increased use of European food products,
the necessity arose among the Delaware of fitting them into thqin own
linguistic configuration, if the foreign terms themselves were not. taken
over. Like so many primitive groups, the Delaware came to
apply native terms of a descriptive nature to the majority of elements
foreign to their culture. Many of these have been retained • to the
49 '■;,:'
present day. Thus, for example, the Delaware term for the cocoanut
is "water hickory nut."
"Indian Potato" or Ground Nut (Apios tuberosa), "wild potato."
The tuberous roots are gathered in large quantities and stored for
winter use. They are not considered good after sprouting. The roots
are either boiled and eaten as the cultivated potato, or dried and
ground into flour used for making bread. In recent times the ground
nut has not grown abundantly in the Delaware habitat, and is now
considered a rare delicacy.
Sorrel (Rumex acetosclla), "sour." This plant, prepared much like
rhubarb, is used as a filling for pies.
Onion (SpJ). Of the dififerent varieties of wild onions, three are
regarded by the Delaware as being edible. The one most commonly
gathered for use is the "buttonseed." These are dried and prepared
by frying, or boiling, or are added to flavor stews and soups. Wild
onions are also cooked in grease to which eggs are added.
A species of mushroom (Agaricus campestris), "tripe form," is
fried in hot fat, or salted and boiled.
Certain plants are considered to be healthful foods, especially in
spring, when people were in need of the medicinal substances present
in them. The practice of seeking the first green plant shoots in early
spring is not peculiar to the Delaware alone, but is characteristic of
other Eastern Algonkian peoples. Such food is called "greens" or "plant
tops." The young shoots are usually picked and cooked separately, or
mixed with several other plants. In both cases the "greens" are par-
boiled in water, and then cooked with meat. Among such plants may be
mentioned dandelion, milkweed, poke, lamb's quarters, mustard, dock,
and- vvatercress.
; Animal Foods
Wild animals, as pointed out by F. G. Speck (1931, pp. 28-29), are
. in gci'ieral considered to exist in clan relationship with humans. The
.latter' are said to be "kings among animals." Clean, pure animals of the
• forests are referred to in terms of human relationship and their spirits
must be propitiated before they can be sought for food. If the super-
naturals are appeased through sacrifices, the animals will allow them-
' selves to be taken, but if the proper ceremonies are not carried out, they
• 'can never be approached by humans. Therefore a hunter before start-
ing' out, is obliged to pray and sacrifice tobacco, and also if he should
dream of seeing game during the hunt. The Delaware "sharing-feast"
50
described by Zeisberger, has previously been referred to (p. 47). Special
medicine lures for hunting are also prepared by the hunter.
The Delaware consider the bear and the deer to be the greatest of
all animals. The bear is also called "Our Grandfather." Both animals
are considered closely akin to the Indian, but the Delaware believe that
the bear has the most human-like traits. The antelope, a creature of
the later Delaware environment, is regarded as a sacred, pure animal.
Of the water animals, the otter is regarded as supernaturally the most
powerful.
During the chase, the hunter is careful not to imduly excite the game
pursued, since the flesh of such an animal is apt to cause illness
when eaten. The same treatment holds for the capture and killing of
domestic animals and fowl. Formerly bison, bear, deer, otter, beaver,
the smaller animals, and wild fowl provided meat for the Delaware diet.
In the latter period squirrels, rabbits, and domestic animals replaced the
increasingly rare, larger species.
After an animal was killed, all parts of it were utilized; the flesh for
food ; the hide for shelter, clothing, robes, and bags ; the bones for
implements, and the teeth for ornaments, etc. The hide was removed
by the hunter forcing his fist between it and the flesh, thus working
around the body until the hide was loose. The use of a sharp instru-
ment for this purpose, would, it was claimed, cut and thus spoil the
hide. All fat from the bison, bear, deer, and domestic animals was
saved and stored in a rawhide container. The intestines were cleaned,
filled with blood or meat, and cooked. The flesh of the larger animals
was usually roasted. A fire was built in a pit and the carcass placed
upon a scaffold above it. A slow fire was kept burning, over which the
meat was turned until it was thoroughly cooked.
Meat was preserved in one of two ways — by smoke-drying or
immersing it in grease. In drying, thin slices were suspended over a
slow fire. In the latter process alternate layers of partially cooked meat
and hot lard were placed in a large earthen crock until filled. Slippery
elm bark, cinnamon, and allspice were added to the grease for flavor.
Stews and soups were made of fresh meat, to which hominy or corn
meal dumplings were added. The flesh of small animals, from which
the scent glands had been removed, were also preserved by smoke-
drying. If a deer, or other animal, was killed during the mating season,
the animal's testicles were immediately removed. An Indian hunter
usually killed only male animals.
Fish were fried or cooked in a stew or soup. Formerly fish were
preserved by drying.
51
APPENDIX I
Nanticoke Folk Beliefs
My reason for incorporating the following material is based upon the
close historical affinities of the Nanticoke with the Delaware over a
period of time so long that both groups must be considered ultimately
to have sprung from a common source. The intimate association of
the two peoples has been maintained through the period of their co-
residence in southeastern Pennsylvania and continued during the course
of their migration northward along the Susquehanna River to the
Iroquois. It seems hardly necessary to point out again that branches of
both tribes were adopted by the Six Nations at the same time ^ and
maintained their representatives in the Council of the League uninter-
ruptedly down to the present day.
While the Delaware have preserved some semblance of their former
culture through the varied accidents which befell them in their north-
ward and westward flight, the Nanticoke have more thoroughly suc-
cumbed to acculturation from alien influences. Yet it is the latter people
only who have left descendants within the area formerly occupied by
them in the Delaware Bay region, the mixed community located in the
district known as Indian River ^undred, Sussex County, Delaware.
In view of what has already been written about this community,- it
seems hardly necessary here to review its history.
The Nanticoke informants employed in this investigation were Chief
Russel Clark, his wife, Florence Clark (nee Drain) and their son
Ferdinand, who later succeeded to his father's office ; the three Wright
brothers, Warren, Elwood, and Walter; Willie Harmon, his wife,
Annie, and their daughter, Janie ; Lincoln Harmon and his wife,
"Patia" ; Levin Street and family, and a Mrs. Bumberry ; and lastly
Howard and Eliza Anne Johnson. It may be of interest that Chief
Clark some years ago took the name of Wyniaco, the term held by the
Nanticoke emperor.
It will be obvious to the ethnologist that no attempt is made to iden-
tify the following data as characteristic of Nanticoke culture of the
pre-European period. In comparison with the preceding Delaware
data, the notes to follow represent a fusion of disparate culture in-
fluences, the total effect of which is very non-Indian in character.
* In 1735 at the invitation of the Cayuga.
'Speck, 1915, 1922 and 1927.
52
For the layman, attention is called to the assumption that the Nanti-
coke, like other native peoples, were actuated by a spirit of inquiry
into the natural world, such as to lead them to experiment with
plants and plant substances introduced as the result of white contact.
Such post-European elements and their application to useful ends
belong to the later culture of the Indians and accompanied changes in
their physical and social environment as well as in their racial composi-
tion. The task of identifying these cultural components and of deter-
mining their origins is not one for the present. The question, there-
fore, of the sources of Nanticoke ideas and practices of the present
day is not included in the scope of this paper. The material has its
bearing upon the development of the Nanticoke as an ethnic com-
munity, even though its analysis be left for a wiser day of culture
reckoning.
My own experience with the Nanticoke was gained through the
gathering of medical folklore, a task started independently in 1921 and
continued during annual visits thereafter until the Pennsylvania Histor-
ical Commission provided funds for this research in 1931. I have at-
tempted to incorporate in the present study all previously compiled
material, both published* and unpublished, concerning the subject of my
immediate interest. That more remains to be collected from the inex-
haustible memories of the Nanticoke descendants scarcely need be added.
One community in particular, at Cheswold, Delaware, which comprises
people of similarly hybrid ancestry, still represents an untouched source
for the collection of new material. This particular group was thought
by Chief Clark to be more distinctly Delaware than Nanticoke, so far as
possible Indian blood is concerned.
Medicine Practices
A number of methods are in use among the Nanticoke to avert or
cure whooping cough. It is believed that a string or necklace of deerskin
will protect the wearer against this disease.
If a woman marries without changing her name, /. e., marries a man
of the same name, she can cure her children of whooping cough by
feeding them bread stolen from her neighbors. One informant stated,
however, that it is bread stolen from such a woman that effects the
* I have included my own version of those Nanticoke folk-lore items which orig-
inally appeared in Speck, The Nanticoke Community of Delaware (1915). This
duplication has seemed advisable in order to bring together the present collection of
data in one place.
53
cure. In the first, a friend was often asked to leave bread where it
could be taken unseen.
Another method of treating whooping cough involved securing as
many cockroaches as there are children affected, and naming one after
each child. Then each child placed a roach into a bottle which was then
tightly corked. The sickness is believed to pass with the death of the
insect. During this period it is necessary, however, to keep the child's
bowels open, else the charm may react and kill him.
A person living in the city is advised to put a cockroach in a thimble,
tie it up in a cloth and wear it around the neck. "You will never whoop
after wearing it."
For chicken pox, the child affected is placed before the open door
of a chicken house, so that the chickens in coming out, fly over him.
To cure lameness, an earthworm is placed in a bottle which is then
hung up somewhere. After the worm decays, the residue is rubbed on
the affected part.
Pellets of yellow pine (Pinus echinata) tar are considered beneficial
for soreness of the back, and as a cathartic.
For rheumatism, an eel-skin is bound around the part affected.
Similarly, to ease a backache, the skin of a blacksnake, removed entire
from the living reptile, is worn around the waist (one old Nanticoke
is said to have obtained a fresh skin every spring, which he wore con-
stantly).
In another treatment of rheumatism, the person is taken to the sea-
shore, and at the water's edge, buried nude in the sand with only his
head exposed. He remains there for about an hour. Two Nanticoke
men are known to have been cured in this way.
To cure infants of colds, tea is made from calamus or "muskrat"
root (Acorns calamus) and administered. A tea brewed from "Horse-
mint" (Monarda punctata) or skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus fcetidus)
leaves is also good for colds. The Nanticoke believe that "chills" can
be "promised away" by a healer or witch.
In another treatment of chills, notches equal to the number of
attacks, are cut in a stick. The person then goes to a stream flowing
east throughout its course, throws the stick over his left shoulder into
>ihe water, and walks away. He will have relief within a day of two.
If a child suffers from croup, he is stood against a door-joint and
his height marked. After he outgrows the mark, the croup will leave
him.
54
A remedy for sore throat is to place the bent thumb inside the sick
person's mouth so as to force his jaws far apart for a period of five
minutes.
A syrup made from star-grass is good for a cough.
Pipsissewa (Chiniaphila umbellata) is steeped and drunk plentifully
for the ague.
To prevent fever in summer, the petals of the first hepatica fliov^^er
encountered that spring are chewed. This plant (Hepatica americana)
is called "chills and fever."
Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) leaves are applied to allay fever. To
prepare them the leaves are spread out, dipped in vinegar and then
bound about the forehead, wrists, back of the neck, and soles of the feet.
For a time the leaves are kept moist with vinegar.
Wild thyme (Thymus serphyllutn) and boneset (Eupatorium per-
foliatmn) are steeped together and taken for chills and fever.
Fever and ague, very common in this region, are believed due to going
barefoot or swimming in the river too early in spring. These ailments
are warded off in the spring by drinking "sarsafack" or sassafras (Sas-
safras albidum) tea, which is "cooling to the blood."
For pains in the stomach a cup of water into which tobacco smoke
has been blown, is drunk. Tobacco smoke is blown into a child's mouth
to cure colic. To treat indigestion, the gizzard of a chicken, previously
kept from eating filth, is eaten without being cleaned.
A necklace made from kernals of a red ear of corn is worn as a pro-
tection against nose-bleed. Another method is to wrap a dried spider in
cloth, and place it in a thimble to be suspended from the neck. Other
treatments include pushing a cobweb up one's nostrils or dropping a
bunch of brass keys down one's back.
It is also believed that recital of the following Biblical verse (Ezekiel
16:6) will cure nose-bleed, but only for a person of opposite sex.
"When I passed by thee, I saw thee polluted in thy blood, and I said
unto thee. Live : and thou didst live in thy blood : yea, thou didst live
in thine blood."
A good lotion for sprains is made of the root of the false indigo
(Baptisia tinctoria) plant and aspen (Populus deltoidea) bark.
Also beneficial in this connection are the macerated roots of devil's
shoestring (Yucca filament osa) made into a poultice.
Warts, it is believed, can be "charmed away" with the spittle of cer-
tain persons with such power. Another treatment is that of rubbing
55
them with prickly pear (Opuntia vulgaris). A split joint of the same
plant is also applied to relieve inflammation from insect stings or bites.
Another way of removing warts is to rub them with a stone found at
a crossroad, as one walks along. Then the stone is thrown over the left
shoulder and the person continues on to his destination. The wart will
disappear in a few days.
To relieve frost bite, the bladder of some animal is bound over the
afifected part. Gall from an animal source is also considered beneficial.
Shingles are cured by rubbing grease from a black hen or the tail of
a black cat upon the sides of one's body.
The leaves of burdock (Arcfiuvi iiihius) are steeped and applied to
boils.
Poultices are made of the leaves and stems of a plant called "King
Cole oil weed" (SpJ).
To rid oneself of intestinal worms, the leaves of a plant called "fish
weed" (SpJ) are chewed. Snake-root (Aristolochia serpentaria) is
steeped and drunk for the same purpose.
The Jewel weed plant or "balasm" ( Ivipaticns hiflora) is steeped and
used to make a poultice for burns.
Skin cuts are healed by covering them with cobweb and binding a
silver dollar over the wound. Soot from the chimney is also useful for
this purpose.
To relieve earache, tobacco smoke is blown into the ear.
"Cow-itch," which generally afifects people in the fall, is treated by
wearing a piece of red yarn tied around the toe. The whole foot may
also be placed in hot cow dung for this skin disorder.
Sores ("dew poison") are believed to come on one's feet from walk-
ing barefoot in dewy grass. This trouble is treated by bathing the feet
in a liquid steeped from fuzzy, white leaves called "mouse-ears" (Sp.f).
"A splinter from a tree struck by lightning will cure toothache."
A treatment for aching teeth is to pick up an old jaw-bone of a horse
by the teeth, and to walk forward counting each step until the burden
must be dropped. The number of steps taken indicate the number of
years before the attack will recur. One informant who tried this,
counted to one hundred.
Grease obtained from a black hen is rubbed on the aching gums of
teething infants. Another remedy is to roast the brains of a dead rabbit
and rub a small amount on the gums. Another informant removes the
"knowledge-bone," an odd-shaped bone from a hog's ear, and sus-
56
pends it by a cord from her child's neck. A mole's foot inclosed in a
small bag is also worn for the same purpose. A number of the Nanticoke
carry a mole's foot in the pocket as a good luck piece to gain money.
The berries of sand myrtle (Leiophylhim buxifolium) are used to
make wine, and a spring tonic.
Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides) and tansy (Tanacetum vidgare)
are both employed as sudorifics. The former is also regarded as an
excellent remedy for kidney and liver troubles.
The grated root of the arrow-arum (Peltrandra virginica) is given
with milk to babies.
Several plants have local folk names, although no medicinal efficacy
is ascribed to them. Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) is called "frog's
milk." Wild gooseberries (Grossularia sp.) are known as "Devil's
berry" because "when they ripen one at a time and fall off during the
night, they say that the Devil picks them off."
Weather Signs
If killdeer plovers ("kildee") are observed to flock and call on a
calm morning, the wind will come up. These birds as well as others,
are believed able to say certain words. Thus the killdeer says "Wind
blow, wind blow !"
The flight of wild geese is also regarded as a sign of approaching
wind.
If chickens continue to feed in the rain, it is an indication that the
rain will last for some time. The Nanticoke believe that the fowl, aware
of continuing rain, eat before they take shelter. If shelter is sought
when the rain begins, the rain will not last long.
If the surf (the ocean is about ten miles from the village) can be
heard, one may expect an east wind bringing rain the following day.
Another indication of approaching rain is the flocking together of
crows or blackbirds.
If hogs become restless and start to pick up sticks, cobs, etc., as for
a bed, the Nanticoke believe that a storm is approaching.
The appearance of the sun during rain denotes rain the following
day. When this occurs the Nanticoke say that the Devil is beating
his wife. Similarly if the sun appears while it is snowing, the "Old
Man" (Devil) is picking his geese.
The point on the horizon where the Milky Way appears to rest indi-
cates the direction from which the wind will blow the next day.
57
The appearance of a sun dog (parhelion) is an indubitable indication
of approaching storm.
If a snake is killed, thrown into the branches of a tree and is caught
by them, it will rain the following day. The day will be clear, however,
if the dead reptile falls clear.
The crowing of a rooster after nightfall denotes bad weather.
Snow is to be expected if wood sputters in the fire.
Miscellany
"If you mock a mourning dove, some time he will burn you."
The cooing of the turtle-dove indicates the direction in which one's
lover is located.
The first cry of the whippoorwill in spring marks the time to plant
corn.
A black animal of any kind crossing one's path at the beginning of a
venture is a forecast of bad luck. One should turn back and go another
time.
A falling star foretells a disappointment.
At the first sight of the new moon, one should remove his pocketbook
and shake it towards the moon for good luck.
If the new moon is first seen with one's arms full of objects, times
will be difficult during the month. If a person has his arms full of
brush on this occasion, he will be carrying brush during most of the
month. If his arms are empty, but little work will be done during
this period.
The Jack-o'-lantern is a kind of spirit which pursues people and
brings misfortune. If one is seen, the observer turns his pockets inside
out to avert the evil. One informant claims to have seen several of
such spirits one night issuing from a dead stump.
A ringing noise in the ear is known as "death bells" and announces
the demise of a relative or friend.
Nanticoke men visit each others' homes on New Year's Day, the
first one to arrive at each house being given fifty cents. For a woman
to come to the house on this day is regarded as an ill omen.
Like the stork in Europe, the Fish Hawk (Pandion halecetus caro-
linensis) is venerated by the Nanticoke. To kill one or disturb a nest
is regarded as a "sin." These birds build their nests near the Indians'
homes, generally in the limb of a dead tree in an open field and return
to them year after year.
58
The Buzzard (Cathartes aura septentrionalis) likewise is never
molested.
If a scorpion lizard (Sceloporus undulatiis) or "scorpion," as it is
known locally, gets on a person and runs completely around his body,
it is a sign that the person will die.
To hand a person a closed knife will bring bad luck. The blade
should be opened.
After severing the umbilical cord of an infant, it should be disposed
of by burning lest misfortune ensue. If the cord is dropped, the baby
subsequently will be unable to retain its urine.
If an excess of saliva runs from a baby's mouth, empty a thimbleful
of water into the tea kettle when it is nine day's old. That will prevent
the child from slobbering.
"When we cut our hair, we put it in the stove and burn it. I clean
my comb every morning and throw the loose hair in the fire. If it
blazes, it means a long life but if the hair burns slowly and chars, they
say a person won't live long."
If some of a person's hair is used by birds in nest building, it may
result in a loss of mind.
The deciduous teeth of children are thrown in the fire. "If a dog
should swallow one, a dog's tooth will grow in the child's mouth."
To shape a baby's head round, press its forehead with the right hand,
the back of the head with the left, three times a day for four weeks.
An infant's nose may be shaped by pinching it gently several times
a day.
To hear a hen crow is bad luck. The bird should be killed.
If a rooster crows near the door of the house, a visitor is to be
expected.
When the cry of the turtle dove is heard, one may sit down, take off
his shoes and find inside of one a hair of the same color as that of
one's future wife.
The small eggs often laid by chickens are called "latter eggs." They
indicate that hen is through laying for the season.
It is regarded as unlucky to burn sassafras wood in the fire; the
crackling sound made by this wood in burning will develop ill temper
in some member of the family. There is no aversion to burning
grapevine, as among the Pamunkey.
Sweeping out the house after nightfall is regarded as "sweeping out
your luck."
59
"While moving a house, carry a broom and some sah and you'll
always be clean and well."
In going out to hunt, the first animal or bird encountered should be
killed "even though it's nothing but a sparrow."
Oil is prepared from walnuts, thickened and used in the preparation
of food.
A spider hanging from the ceiling announces the approach of a
stranger.
"A boy born to look like his mother is born to fortune ; the same is
true for a girl who resembles her father."
A crust ("crisp") of soot taken from the chimney is placed in a
cloth bag and steeped in a half cup of hot water. This "tea" is con-
sidered beneficial for indigestion of babies.
A "mushrind" (mushroom) is believed to grow from frog-spawn.
Snails or slugs are never harmed. A slug is believed to be an im-
mature snail, too young to have a shell. "It hunts around to find an
empty shell and occupy it."
To bite off the head of a moth or butterfly is to secure a new suit of
clothes of the same pattern as the insect's wings.
The eyes of the bullfrog are "popped-out" because he was run over
by a "timber cart." Hence the remark, "it is hard on the eyes," made
of a youth who refuses to fight.
The affections of a girl can be gained in the following way : An
empty bottle is tightly corked and taken to a stream that flows east
throughout its entire course. A string is fastened to the bottle and
then secured to a tree near the stream. The bottle is placed in the
water so that the current will draw the string taut. Then a picture of
the loved one is drawn in the sand with a stick, the mind being held
intent upon its desire. The arrangement is then left undisturbed. As
long as the string holds the bottle, so long will the girl's aflfections
be retained.
A person's death may be brought about by placing a lock of his hair
in a hole bored in a pine tree in the winter, and plugging it up. Sometime
in March the sap will rise in the tree and result in that person's death
within a year.
To win the affections of a person of the opposite sex, go to a well
at noon on the first day of May and hold a mirror so as to reflect the
surface of the water below. The image of the person that the observer
is to marry will appear in the mirror. If marriage is not in store for
60
that person, the image of a coffin will appear instead. A variant of this
involves gazing down into the water for the image to appear.
Another method of viewing the likeness of one's future husband is
to tie the ends of two balls of yarn together and take them to the upper
story of an old, deserted house. Then throw one yarn ball out of the
window, retaining the other in the hand, and repeat the following lines :
"I wind my yarn.
Who'll wind agin' me?"
The girl's intended will then pick up the yarn and start to rewind it.
An incident was related by the Nanticoke to illustrate still another
means of looking into the future. In employing this device a girl must
wash her underclothing and hang them before the fire to dry. During
the night her prospective husband will come and turn them to dry on
the other side. A girl carried this out and next morning found that
her garments had been turned and a knife thrust into them. She kept
the knife. Some years later she married and told her husband of find-
ing the knife. His reply was, "Yes, I put that knife there and now I
am going to kill you with it. You nearly caused me to lose my life
by a fall from the rigging of a ship." It was believed that the man's
spirit left his body while he was working aloft on a ship, causing him to
fall many feet to the deck and sufifer severe injury.
For the following test, the services of two people of the same sex are
required (?). An egg is boiled hard and allowed to remain in water for
a whole day. The egg is then broken, the yolk removed and the resulting
space filled with salt. The hardened egg white and salt are then eaten
without drinking water and without speaking. Then the subject walks
backward from the room, goes upstairs backward and gets into bed
in the same way. If he or she dreams that night, the one who brings a
drink of water in the dream is the future spouse. During the entire
night complete silence must be maintained.
A test of similar purpose is also carried out by two persons of the
same sex. At midnight, after the lights are turned very low, the prin-
cipals sit opposite each other at a table and eat ash cake. The figure of
the future wife or husband will appear in the door and walk across
the room. If one is to remain single, a coffin will be seen beside one's
chair.
One Nanticoke informant recalled an incident of two sisters each of
whom wished to know the identity of her future husband. They under-
took such a test as was just described and made the necessary arrange-
ments for the "silent" meal in advance. Upon promising not to con-
61
verse, their brother was allowed to witness the procedure. The door of
the house was opened wide and secured, to prevent its closure by the
high wind usually arising upon such occasions. The table was set for
two and each girl, in turn, cooked an egg, and some meat for her lover,
the food being placed on the table. Just then someone drove up out-
side, a young man walked in and sat down at the place set by one of the
girls. Immediately following him were two men bearing a coffin which
they placed beside the chair of the second sister. At the sight of this
morbid object, both girls screamed, causing their ghostly visitors and
the coffin to disappear. Some years later, according to the recital, the
first girl married the man revealed to her that night but her less fortu-
nate sister died within a short time. The informant added that while
the meal was in progress, the prospective suitor lapsed into a brief coma
which permitted his spiritual visitation at the rite.
Dreams and their significance form an interesting topic of conversa-
tion in the typical Nanticoke household. One informant stated, "Some
are born to see sights. If their veil (caul) is saved, they can talk with
the dead; if lost, they will be timed and cannot talk with those in the
other world. People who have such power aren't afraid of ghosts."
A number of the Nanticoke rely upon their dreams for advice along
various lines. One woman stated that she had been perplexed as to
the proper placing of a flight of steps by which to descend to the grove
and beach in front of her dwelling. One night she had the following
dream :
"I was standing out in front yard astudyin' 'bout where to put me
steps. Pretty soon, Ralph (my son who's dead) came right up to
where I was standin' and said, 'Mom, what's ye studyin' 'bout?' and I
says, 'Tell me where to put me steps.' He said, 'Put 'em right chere.'
And so I did."
One night she had a dream in which she talked with a daughter who
died some years previously. "I saw Eunice there and she looked natural.
I said, 'Don't you want to go home with me?' 'No,' she said, 'I'm happy
here and I have lots of time oft'. Anyway, you'll all be home with me
before another year passes. The world hain't goin' to stand long'."
Suggestive of the veil which separates them from the spiritual realm
is a Nanticoke case in which a sister communicates in a dream with her
brother whose death occurred some years previously. The scene of
the dream was an attic room, a fence separating the two. They could
not converse together but wrote their questions and answers on a
sheet of paper which was held up and read by each one in turn.
62
It is said that in dreams the dead always appear natural and never
dressed in "grave clothes."
One man said that his mother seldom had a dream but when she
did, it was usually of importance. On one occasion she dreamed of a
wonderful place to catch fish and told her husband about it. Following
her instructions he found the spot and caught a great quantity of fish.
Another time they lost the smokehouse key. In a dream she saw the
place where it was hidden from view in tall grass. Next day she went to
the spot and found the key. "Somebody had dashed it in the grass
waist-high."
To dream of one's teeth falling out, is a forecast of a death in the
family.
63
APPENDIX II
USES OF MEDICINAL PLANTS AMONG THE
CANADIAN DELAWARE
THE following notes on the medicine practices of the Six Nations
Delaware, Grand River Reserve, located near Hagersville, in
Brant County, Ontario, Canada, were recorded during a visit to
the reserve in November, 1931. The group consists of about 150
individuals of mixed Indian and white blood. Only a few, however,
have any knowledge of the language and traditions of the Delaware who
once inhabited the section of the country now known as Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, and New York. To find the identity and location of the
predecessors of the band now in question, who migrated to Canada,
will be impossible until a comparative study has been made of the
various vocabularies.
I am indebted to Mrs. Martha Peters Hill, Nicholas Powless, his
sister, Mrs. Maracle, Joseph Montour, John Lickers, and Walter Moses
for aid in securing the Delaware information herein presented.
In contrast to the ceremonies connected with the various processes of
healing as employed by the Oklahoma Delaware, we find only a few
traces of such rites among the Delaware of Canada. Plant parts to be
used for medicinal purposes should be gathered when the vital properties
are in that part of the plant (the flower, root, etc.), to be used. One
informant added that plants should be gathered before the fireflies
appear. When seeking herbal plants, the first of the desired species
should not be plucked. It is customary to pass on to another of the
same variety and there dig a small hole beside the plant and in it place
an offering of tobacco. If a large quantity of herbs were gathered,
they were tied in bundles and allowed to dry in the sun, to prevent
mould. Some dried their plants in a warm room.
When bark is used it is taken from the east side of a tree; only
the inner bark, which is usually peeled downward, is used. Roots may
be scraped or cut into small portions.
Medicinal plants are regarded as being sensitive to handling, and
when brewing medicine, care must be taken to refrain from stirring the
mixture while it is steeping. After being thoroughly steeped, the medi-
cine is removed from the fire, and if necessary, stirred only toward the
64
right. It is never cooled by blowing upon it. Running water should
be used, and it was customary in former times to dip the water with or
against the current, or to submerge the container and allow the water
to flow in from all sides. ^
The term "doctol," from English doctor, was the only term for an
herbalist obtainable from those interviewed. It is also said both men
and women could become practitioners. When calling upon a doctor for
treatment it is customary to ofifer him a present of money. In former
times, cloth, tobacco, and other gifts were offered.
Great Mullein (Verbascum thapsus).
The leaves are crushed and applied as a poultice to bruised sur-
faces to reduce swelling and allay pain.
Nannyberry (Viburnum lentago) and mullein leaves are steeped
and the tea administered in case of measles.
Live-Forever (Sedum telephioides)
The leaves are crushed and used as a poultice to draw out poison.
My informant regarded this to be a most powerful and effective
application. He stated that he had suffered from a serious case of
infection which resulted from stepping on a rusty nail and that the
above remedy cured him in a short while.
Plantain (Plant ago major).
The leaves are crushed and applied to bruises.
Burdock (Arctium minus).
The leaves are bound on the body to reduce pain. The root is
used in making medicine for purifying the blood.
Horseradish (Radicula armoracia).
The leaves are applied as a poultice in case of neuralgia.
Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens).
The root is used for making medicine which is administered to
persons suffering from consumption.
Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare).
The plant is used in making medicine which is effective in treat-
ing disorders of the stomach.
' My informants could not explain this but said that the water must be dipped in
different ways according to the nature of the disease to be treated. It is a common
belief that water dipped imth the current acts as a laxative and against it acts as
an emetic. Allowing the water to flow into the container from all sides suggests
the idea that the remedy to be made would tend to benefit the entire system.
65
BoNESET (Enpatorium perfoliatum).
This is considered to be a very powerful medicinal herb by my
informants and it should be used with great precaution according
to their belief. Tea made from the leaves is beneficial as a stomach
medicine.'"
Elecampane (Inula heleniiim) root and poplar (Populus tremiiloides)
bark are steeped together and the liquid drunk to relieve a cold.
Catnip (Nepeta cataria).
A tea made from the leaves is regarded as a soothing drink for
infants.
White Pine (Pinus strobus).
The twigs are steeped to make a medicine which is effective in
treating disorders of the kidneys. It is also administered to persons
suffering from pulmonary diseases.
The pitch is applied to boils to draw out the poison and reduce
the pain.
Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus).
The root is scraped and hot water poured over it and drunk in
case of colds.
Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis).
A small quantity of the powdered root is added to a half a cup
of lukewarm water and a teaspoonful to stop vomiting. The root
is also used in combination with other plants in making a blood
purifier.
Yellow Oak (Quercus muhlenbergii).
To stop vomiting, pour water over a piece of the bark and when
the water becomes a yellowish tinge drink a small quantity of it.
Ironwood or American Hornbeam (Carpinus caroUmana) root or
bark, and the bark of juniper (Junlperus coviuiiinis), white oak
(Quercus alba), wild cherry (Prunus serotina), and hickory (Carya
ovata) are steeped together for a tonic. A small bundle of some of
each is put into about a pint of water. The mixture is steeped down
' This plant so commonly used by both Indians and whites in those sections of
eastern North America where it is indigenous, appears to be regarded as being
too powerful to be tampered with by the Six Nations Delaware informants. The
Oklahoma Delaware, however, use the plant freely.
66
I
to about half the quantity. An equal part of brandy may be
added. This is considered to be a month's treatment for one per-
son and is considered to be effective in treating cases of general
debility. It is valuable as a remedy for diseases peculiar to women.
My informant (Nicholas Powless) stated that he had bought the
remedy, as is customary, from a Delaware herbalist. After a pro-
longed illness, during which time he was in the hospital, Mr.
Powless was brought home, as he said, apparently to die. He
obtained the formula just noted, made up the medicine and is
taking it daily. He claims that he has continued to regain his
strength and is slowly recovering from a complication of diseases
pronounced incurable.
A tea made by pouring hot water over a small quantity of soot
is given to babies in case of colic. A stronger tea is beneficial for
a sick cow.
A powder obtained from decayed pine (Pinus strobus) is used
for babies because of its healing properties.
Sumac (Rhus typhina).
A tea made from the berries is drunk as a remedy for diarrhea.
Skunk oil and molasses is taken for colds and cramp. The oil rubbed
on the throat and chest sparingly tends to relieve congestion. Goose
and raccoon oil are used similarly.
Rattlesnake oil is valuable in treating stiff joints. It is very powerful
and should be used sparingly. Only a few drops on the finger
tips and applied to the affected parts. The skin may be bound on
the wrists and ankles to strengthen them.^
'When told of the belief that snake oil, if used alone, "will unjoint you," an
idea common among the Wampanoag of Cape Cod, Mass., my informant laughed
and said that he knew that it would not because he had used it on his joints with
good results. His sister added that if he could obtain some rattlesnake oil, now he
might keep in better condition.
67
APPENDIX III
THREE OKLAHOMA DELAWARE MYTHS
The Boy Who Lived With a Bear
"Once a small boy was lost in the woods. A woman with two children
came along and took him with her to her house in the woods. But the
boy soon discovered that this friend was a bear with two cubs and
that the house was a great hollow tree trunk. One day a young
hunter was out in the woods and he saw the little boy in a tree with the
two cubs so he went back and told his people. The mother bear knew
that soon they would come to take the boy away from her and she felt
very badly because she had grown to like him as her own. And she
knew, too, that when they came for the boy she would probably lose
her life. So she cried and begged him to take his little bow and arrow
and hold them near the entrance of the den so that the hunters might
know that he was in there, but the boy would not do as she bid. Finally,
the hunters came and called the boy, but he would not come out. The
bear came out and the hunters killed her and took the boy and two
cubs. The boy was returned to his family, but living in a house was
strange to him after living with the bears in their den, and he had
queer ways. The cubs were raised until they were full grown and then
they were released by performing a ceremony with wampum which is
always done when pets are to be no longer kept by a family.'' ( See
p. 36.)
The Woods Dwarf
"Matekanis, 'woods dwarf,' lived in the forest. He was kind and
was always helping people, but only a few were known to have seen
him. He was discovered by a little boy who went to play alone in the
woods one day. The little boy liked Matekanis so much that he went
to play with him often. \Mien the other children asked him where he
had been he would say, T have been to play with my little friend who
lives in the woods.' Sometimes he could see Mate-kanis near where the
other children v ere playing and would point to him but his playmates
could not see the little brown creature. He is said to look like a small
boy but is strong and powerful. Only certain people were known to
68
have seen Matekanis and they usually became noted for their physical
strentgh. Matekanis is not seen any more because the Indians have
changed their mode of living and are not clean enough to be visited by
such spiritual beings. The white man's ways are so far removed from
the ways of the Indian that if we adopt any of them we cannot expect
to see many of the things which were commonly seen before we knew
of his strange ways." ^
The Seven Wise Men
"Years ago there were seven wise men among the Indians. So great
was their pride that they did not wish to associate with the common
people. Because they were so wise and great, they had to find a way
to conceal themselves from the people. After thinking over the matter
very seriously they said, 'We will turn into rocks of odd shapes.' Now
there happened to be a young man who was gifted ^ and he went out to
walk on a hillside. As he walked along he noticed the seven peculiarly
shaped rocks and as he stopped to look at them, one of them spoke to
him. The young man recognized them at once as being the seven
prophets and they conversed together. They told him not to tell where
they were, but someone noticed his frequent visits to the spot, and
soon they were again sought by curious people. Now they must leave
the quiet hillside and go elsewhere. After a while there appeared in
the forest seven stately cedar trees. More perfectly formed trees were
never before seen and they were greatly admired. It was not long
before someone discovered that they were the seven prophets and they
again had to change their form and depart. The Creator thought that it
was of no use to place them on earth as they were being constantly
bothered by earthly things so he placed them in the heavens. There
we see the seven stars - as they were placed there so long ago by the
Creator."
' According to Witapanoxwe every individual is "gifted" or has some super-
natural power. In some it is developed early in life, while in other individuals it
remains a latent undeveloped force.
' The Pleiades.
69
Authorities Cited
Barber, J. W.
1856 History of New England. 3rd ed. Hartford, Connecticut.
Benedict, Ruth
1923 The Concept of the Guardian Spirit in North America.
Mem. Amer. Anth. Assoc, vol. 29, New York.
Bloomfield, Leonard
1928 Menomini Texts. Pub. Amer. Ethnol. Soc, vol. XH,
New York.
Boas, Franz
1929 Anthropology and Modern Life. New York.
Brinton, D. G.
1888 Lenape Conversations. Jour. Amer. Folk Lore, vol. I,
No. 1 (Apr.-June). pp. 37-43.
Cartier, Jacques
1906 Voyages. In Early English and French Voyages (1534-
1608), Orig. Narr. of Early Amer. Hist. H. S. Burrage
(ed), New York.
Clements, Forrest
1932 Primitive Concepts of Disease. Univ. California Pubs.
Amer. Archae. and Ethnol. vol. 23, No. 2. Berkeley.
Converse, Harriet M.
1910 Myths and Legends of the New York State Iroquois.
A. C. Parker (ed). Bull. New York State Mus. No.
144.
Cooper, John M.
The Bezoar in Aboriginal American Culture. MS.
Densmore, Frances
1928 Use of Plants by the Chippewa Indians. 44th Ann. Rep.
Bur. Amer. Ethnol. pp. 275-397.
1929 Chippewa Customs. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 86. pp.
1-204.
Gilmore, Melvin R.
1919 Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River
region. 33rd Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. pp. 43-154.
GOLDENWEISER, A. A.
1922 Early Civilization. New York.
70
Hallowell, a. I.
Medicine Practices of the St. Francis Abenaki. MS.
1939 Sin, Sex and Sickness in Saulteaux Belief. British Jour.
Med. Psy. vol. XVIII. pt. 2, pp. 191-97.
Harrington, M. R.
1921 Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape. Indian Notes,
Mus. Amer. Indian, Heye Foundation.
Heckewelder, John
1876 History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations,
etc. W. D. Reichel (ed). Pubs. Hist. Soc. Pennsylvania.
Hodge, Frederick W. (Editor)
1912 Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. 2 vols.
Hoffman, W. J.
1893 The Menomini Indians. 14th Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. pp. 11-328.
Kirkpatrick, C.
1929 Religion in Human Affairs. New York.
Kroeber, a. L.
1902 The Arapaho. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 18,
I, pp. 1-229.
LaBarre, W.
1938 The Peyote Cult. Yale Pubs, in Anthrop. No. 28, New
Haven.
Lowie, Robert H.
1924a Minor Ceremonies of the Crow Indians. Anthrop. Pap.
Amer., Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. XXI, No. 5.
1924b Primitive Religion. New York.
LosKiEL, George H.
1794 History of the Mission of United Brethren Among the
Indians of North America. London. 2 pts.
MooNEY, James
1892 The Sacred Formula of the Cherokees. 7th Ann. Rep.
Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp. 301-397.
1896 The Mescal Plant and Ceremony. Therapeutic Gazette,
vol. XI, No. 1, pp. 7-11.
Olbrechts, Franz M.
Cherokee MSS.
1929 Prophylaxis in Cherokee Medicine. Libraire et Im-
primerie, E. J. Brill, Leyden.
Parker, Arthur C.
1910 Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Plant Foods. New
York State Mus. Bull. 144.
71
Petrullo, Vincenzo
1934 The Diabolic Root. Philadelphia.
RoBBiNS, W. W., J. p. Harrington, and Barbar.\ Freire-Mareco.
1916 Ethnobotany of the Tewa Indians. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
Bull. 55.
Safford, W. E.
1916 Narcotic Plants and Stimulants of the Ancient Americans.
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst., pp. 387-424.
Shonle, Ruth
1925 Peyote, The Giver of Vision. Amer. Anth. vol. 27 , No.
1, pp. 53-76.
Skinner, Alanson B.
1913 Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the Menomini.
Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. XIII,
No. 1.
1920 IMedicine Ceremony of the Menomini, Iowa and Wah-
peton. Indian Notes, vol. IV, Mus. Amer. Indian,
Heye Foundation.
Smith, Huron H.
1923 Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bull. Pub. Mus.
Milwaukee, vol. 4, No. 1.
Speck, Frank G.
1907 The Creek Indians of Taskigi Town. Mem. Amer.
Anthrop. Assoc, vol. II, pt. 2.
1909 Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians. Anthrop. Pubs.
Univ. Penna. Mus. vol. I, No. 1.
1911 Ceremonial Songs of the Creek and Yuchi. Anthrop.
Pubs. Univ. Penna. Mus. vol. I, No. 2.
1915 Nanticoke Community of Delaware, Contrib. vol. II,
No. 4. Mus. Amer. Indian, Heye Foundation.
1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonkians.
Proc. 19th Inter. Cong, of Amer., Washington (1915).
1922 Indians of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Published by
Eastern Shore Society of Baltimore.
1927 The Nanticoke and Conoy Indians. Pub. Hist. Soc. Dela.
n. s. vol. I, Wilmington.
1931 A Study of the Delaware Big House Ceremony; in native
text, dictated by Witapanoxwe. Pub. Penna. Hist.
Comm., vol. 2.
1937a Oklahoma Delaware Ceremonies, Feasts and Dances.
Mem. Amer. Phil. Soc, vol. VII, Philadelphia.
1937b Catawba IMedicines and Curative Practices. Twenty-fifth
Anniversary Studies : Phila. Anthrop. Societv, D. S.
Davidson (ed.), pp. 179-197, Phila.
Ethnology of the Powhatan Tribes of Virginia. MS.
n
SwANTON, John R.
1928a Social and Religious Beliefs and Usages of the Chicka-
saw Indians. 44th Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol.,
pp. 169-273.
1928b Social Organization and Social Usages of the Indians of
the Creek Confederacy. 42nd Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol., pp. 23-472.
1928c Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek
Indians. 42nd Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp.
473-672.
Thomas, Gabriel
1912 Account of, in Narr. of Early Penna., Western N. J. and
Dela. A. C. Meyers (ed.). New York.
Tantaquidgeon, Gladys
1928 Mohegan Medicinal Practices, Weatherlore and Super-
stitions. In F. G. Speck, Native Tribes and Dialects of
Connecticut, 43rd Ann. Rep., Bur. Amer. Ethnol., pp.
264-275.
1930 Notes on the Gay Head Indians of Massachusetts. Indian
Notes, vol. VII, No. 1, Mus. Amer. Ind., Heye
Foundation.
Medical Practices of the Gay Head and Mashpee Indians
of Massachusetts. MS.
United States, Dispensary of the,
1926 Philadelphia.
Waugh, F. W.
1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparations. Canada Geol.
Surv., Mem. 86, Anthrop. Ser., No. 12.
Williams, Rogers
1827 A Key into the Language of America, etc. Coll. Rhode
Island Hist. Soc, vol. I.
Wissler, Clark
1912 Ceremonial Bundles of the Blackfoot. Anthrop. Pap.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. VII, pt. 2.
1916 General Discussion of Shamanistic and Dancing Societies.
Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. XI, No. 12.
1917 The American Indian. New York.
Zeisberger, David
History of the North American Indians. A. B. Hulbert
and W. N. Schwarze (eds.), Ohio State Archae. and
Hist. Soc, n. d.
73
PLANTS AND PLANT USES OF
Botanical Name
Common Name
1.
Achillea millefolium
Yarrow
2.
Acorns calamus
Sweet Flag
3.
Aesculus glabra
Buckeye
4.
Agaricus campestris
Mushroom
5.
Allium canadense
Wild Onion (small)
6.
Amaranihus retroflexus
Pigweed
7.
Ambrosia artemisiae folia
Ragweed
8.
Anaphalis mar gar it ace a
Pearly-everlasting
9.
Angelica atropurpurea
Angelica
10.
Apios tuberosa
Indian Potato, Groundnut
U.
Apocynum cannabinum
Indian Hemp
12.
Aralia nudicaulis
Sarsaparilla
13.
Arctium minus
Burdock
14.
Aristolochia serpentaria
Virginia Snakeroot
15.
Artemisia frigid a
Wild Sage
16.
Asclepias (5 species)
Milkweed
17.
Asclepias tuberosa
Butterfly Weed
18.
Baptisia tinctoria
False Indigo
19.
Betula liitea
Yellow Birch
20.
Brassica nigra
Black Mustard
21.
Brauneria purpurea
Purple Cone-flower, "Horse-
hobble weed"
22.
Carya cordiformis
Bitternut Hickory
23.
Carya ovata
Shell Bark Hickory
24.
Carya glabra
Pignut
25.
Castanea pimiila
Chinquapin
26.
Cercis canadensis
Redbud
27.
Chimaphila umbellata
Pipsissewa
28.
Chrysopis mariana
Golden Aster
29.
Cimicifuga racemosa
Black Snakeroot
30.
Cirsium lanceolatum
Bull Thistle
31.
Cornus canadensis
Bunchberry
32.
Cornus florida
Dogwood
33.
Corylus americana
Hazelnut
34.
Crotolaria saggitalis
Rattle Box
35.
Datura stramonium
Timson Weed
74
THE OKLAHOMA DELAWARE
Native Use
Part of Plant
Type of
Used
Medicine
Medicine (liver and kidneys)
Entire plant
Simple
Medicine (cold, stomach-ache, sup-
Root
Compound
pressed menses)
Medicine (poultice; utility fish
Nut pulverized
Simple
poison)
Food
Food
Food
Use with others
as greens
Medicine (blood poisoning
Entire plant as
preventative)
poultice
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Medicine (stomach)
Root
Simple
Food
Root
Mats
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Medicine (rheumatism)
Root
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Medicine (ceremonial)
Leaves chewed
Medicine (epilepsy)
Root
Comp^ound
Medicine (rheumatism, healing
Root
Simple and
drink following childbirth)
compound
Medicine (wash for cuts, ulcers)
Root
Simple
Medicine (cathartic)
Bark
Simple
Food
Young shoots
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Simple and
compound
Food
Nuts
Food
Nuts
Food
Nuts
Food
Nuts
Medicine (reduce fever, stop vom-
iting)
Medicine (bladder, blood purifier)
Bark
Simple
Plant
Compound
Medicine (infants, frail children)
Root
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Simple and
compound
Medicine (rheumatism)
Root
Simple
Medicine (body pains)
Bark
Compound
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Food
Nuts
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Simple
Medicine (poultice for cuts)
Leaves, seeds
Simple
75
PLANTS AND PLANT USES OF
Botanical Name
Common Name
36.
Daucus carota
Wild Carrot
Z7.
Dentaria diphylla
Toothwort
38.
Diospyros virginiana
Persimmon
39.
Epipactis pubescens
Rattlesnake Plantain
40.
Eryngium aquaticum
Button Snake-root
41.
Eupatorium perfoliatum
Boneset
42.
Fragaria virginiana
Strawberry
43.
Fraxinus americana
White Ash
44.
Gaultheria procumbens
Wintergreen
45.
Gaylussacia baccata
Huckleberry
46.
Gelsemium sempervirens
Yellow Jasmine
47.
Gentiana crinita
Fringed Gentian
48.
Gleditsia triacanthos
Honey Locust
49.
Hedeoma pulegioides
False Pennyroyal
50.
Helianthemium canadense
"Frost" or "ice" weed
51.
Humulus hipidus
Hops
52.
Hydranga aborescens
Sevenbark
53.
Ilex opaca
Holly
54.
Inula helenium
Elecampane
55.
Iris versicolor
Blue Flag
56.
Juglans nigra
Black Walnut
57.
Juniperus virginiana
Red Cedar
58.
Leonurus cardiaca
Motherwort
59.
Lobelia cardinalis
Cardinal Flower
60.
Lophophora williamsii
Peyote
61.
Mentha piperita
Peppermint
62.
Mentha canadensis
Wildmint
63.
Mitchella repens
Partridge Berry
64.
Monarda punctata
Horse Mint
65.
Morus nigra
Mulberry
66.
Myrica sp.
Bayberry
67.
Myrica asplenifolia
Sweet Fern
68.
Nepeta cataria
Catnip
69.
Opuntia vulgaris
Prickly Pear
70.
Panax quinquefolium
Ginseng
76
OKLAHOMA DELAWARE— Continued
Native Use
Part of Plant
Type of
Used
Medicine
Medicine (diabetes)
Blossoms
Simple
Medicine (scrofula, venereal
Root
Compound
disease)
Food
Fruit
Medicine (poultice; female
Leaves
Simple and
disorder)
compound
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Compound and
simple
Medicine (chills, fever)
Root
Simple
Food
Berries
Medicine (cathartic)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Plant
Compound and
simple
Food
Berries
Medicine (salve)
Root
Compound
Medicine (stomach ; blood purifier)
Root
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Bark
Compound
Medicine (pain in stomach)
Leaves
Simple
Medicine (strengthening)
Plant
Simple
Medicine (nerves)
Blossoms
Simple
Medicine (gallstones)
Root
Compound
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Medicine (rheumatism; liver;
Root
Compound
kidneys)
Medicine (cathartic)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (rheumatism)
Twigs
Simple
Medicine (female disorder)
Leaves
Simple
Medicine (typhoid)
Root
Simple
Medicine (consumption; periodic
"Bean" or
Simple
fits; emergency med. charm)
"Button"
Medicine (tonic)
Leaves
Compound
Medicine (suppressed menses)
Plant
Simple
Medicine (fever)
Plant
Simple
Medicine (cathartic)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (female generative
Root
Compound
organs)
Medicine (poison ivy)
Leaves
Simple
Medicine (tonic for children)
Leaves with
peach seed
Not used
Medicine (efifective in any severe
Root
Simple and
illness. Most potent med.)
compound
77
PLANTS AND PLANT USES OF THE
Botanical Name
Common Name
71.
Phytolacca americana
Poke
72.
Pimpinella atiisum
Anise
73.
Plantago major
Plantain
74.
Platanus occidentalis
Plane Tree
75.
Podophyllmn pcltatum
May Apple
76.
Populus sargentii
Cottonwood
77.
Prunella vulgaris
Heal-all
78.
Prunus americana
Plum
79.
Primus persica
Peach
80.
Prunus serotina
Wild Cherry
81.
Pyrus communis
Pear
82.
Pyrus coronaria
Crab Apple
83.
Pyrus mains
Apple
84.
Quercus alba
White Oak
85.
Quercus macrocarpa
Bur Oak
86.
Quercus vclutina
Black Oak
87.
Quercus palitstris
Pin Oak
88.
Quercus rubra
Red Oak
89.
Radicula nasturtium-
aquaticum
Water Cress
90.
Rhamnus caroliniana
Buckthorn
91.
Rhus copallina
Dwarf Sumac
92.
Rhus toxicondendron
Poison Ivy
93.
Rhus typhina
Staghorn Sumac
94.
Ribes rotundifolium
Gooseberry
95.
Ribes triste
Swamp Currant
96.
Rubus canadensis
Thimble Berry
97.
Rubus nigrobacciis
Blackberry
98.
Rnbus villosus
Blackberry
99.
Rubus occidentalis
Black Raspberry
100.
Rumex acetoscUa
Sheep Sorrel
101.
Rumex crispus
Dock
102.
Rhumex obtusifolins
Dock
103.
Salix humilis
Prairie Willow
104.
Salix tristis
Sage Willow, "Red Root"
105.
Sambucus canadensis
Elder
78
OKLAHOMA DELAWARE— Continued
Native Use
Part of Plant
Type of
Used
Medicine
Medicine (rheumatism)
Root
Simple and
compound
Medicine (cathartic)
Root
Simple and
compound
Medicine (poultice; also female
Leaves
Simple and
disorder)
compound
Medicine (colds, sore throat)
Bark
Compound
Medicine (laxative; love charm)
Root
Simple
Medicine (female disorder)
Bark
Compound and
simple
Medicine (fever)
Top
Food
Fruit
Food
Fruit
Medicine (tonic)
Bark, Fruit
Compound
Food
Fruit
Food
Fruit
Food
Fruit
Medicine (antiseptic)
Bark
Compound
Food
Nuts
Medicine (hoarseness)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (intestinal pains)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (hoarseness)
Bark
Compound
Root
Plant
Medicine (cathartic)
Bark
Simple
Medicine (ceremonial tobacco
Leaves, Root
Simple
mixture)
Medicine (salve)
Root
Compound
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Compound
Food
Berries
Food
Berries
Medicine (dysentery)
Vine, Berries
Compound
Berries used as food
Berries
Food
Berries
Food
Berries
Food
Plant
Food
Plant
Simple and
Medicine (food)
Root, Young
Shoots
compound
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Compound
Medicine (womb displacement ;
Root
Compound
venereal disease)
Medicine (salve) (fruit edible)
Bark, Berries
Simple
Simple
79
PLANTS AND PLANT USES OF THE
Botanical Name
Common Name
106.
Sanguinaria canadensis
Bloodroot
107.
Sassafras albidum
Sassafras
108.
Scutellaria galericulata
Skull Cap
109.
Smilacina racemosa
False Spikenard
110.
Smilacina stellata
False Solomon's Seal
111.
Solarium dulcamera
Bittersweet
112.
Solarium nigrum
Common Nightshade
113.
Solidago juncea
Goldenrod
114.
Symplocarpus foetidus
Skunk Cabbage
115.
Stachys palustris
Hedge Nettle
116.
Taraxacum officinale
Dandelion
117.
Tsuga canadensis
Hemlock
118.
Typha latifolia
Cat-tail
119.
Ulmus americana
American Elm
120.
Vaccinium pennsylvanicum
Lowbush Blueberry
121.
Vaccinium corymbosnm
Highbush Blueberry
122.
Verbose urn thapsus
Great Mullein
123.
Verbena hastata
Blue Vervain
124.
Viburnum prunifolium
Black Haw
125.
Vitis (various sp.)
Wild Grape
126.
Vitis rupestris
Wild Grape
127.
Vitis vulpina
Wild Grape
128.
Xanthoxylum anicrican um
Prickly Ash
129.
Zea Mays
Corn
130.
Zea Mays identata
Dent Corn
131.
Zea Mays indurata
Flint Corn
132.
Zea Mays amylacea
Flour Corn
133.
Zea Mays saccharata
Sweetcorn
134.
Zea Mays evert a
Popcorn
80
OKLAHOMA DELAWARE— Concluded
Native Use
Part of Plant
Type of
Used
Medicine
Medicine (tonic) ceremonial paint
Root
Simple and
compound
Medicine (tonic)
Bark
Compound
Medicine (laxative)
Top
Simple
Medicine (tonic)
Root
Compound
Medicine (venereal disease,
Root
Compound and
scrofula)
simple
Medicine (fever, also in salve)
Root
Compound
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Compound
Medicine (diarrhea, fever)
Leaves (tea or
chewed)
Simple
Medicine (whooping cough, fits,
Root, Leaves
Simple
poultice)
Medicine (venereal disease)
Root
Compound
Medicine (tonic, laxative, food)
Root, Plant
Compound and
simple
Medicine (herbal steam)
Twigs
Simple
Medicine (gravel in kidneys)
Root
Simple
Medicine (coughs, colds)
Bark
Simple
Food
Berries
Food
Berries
Medicine (rheumatism, colds)
Leaves
Medicine (chills)
Root
Compound
Medicine (female generative
Root
Compound
organs)
Food
Fruit
Medicine (increase fertility)
Vine
Compound
Medicine (leucorrhea)
Juice from vine
Simple
Medicine (tonic, heart)
Bark
Simple and
comjxjund
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
Food
81
PLANTS AND PLANT USES OF THE DELAWARE
Botanical Name
Common Name
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Acorus calamus
Arctium minus
Celastrus scandens
Eupatorium perfoliatiim
Carya alba
Sweet Flag
Burdock
Climbing Bittersweet
Boneset
Hickory
6.
7.
8.
9.
Inula helenium
Juniperus communis
Nepeta cat aria
Ostrya virginiana
Elecampane
Juniper
Catnip
Hop Hornbeam
10.
Pinus strobus
White Pine
11.
Plantago major
Plantain
12.
13.
14.
15.
Populus tremuloides
Prunus serotina
Quercus alba
Quercus muhlenbergii
Aspen
Wild Cherry
White Oak
Yellow Oak
16.
17.
18.
Rhus typhina
Roripa amoracia
Sangninaria canadensis
Staghorn Sumac
Horseradish
Bloodroot
19.
20.
Tanacetum vulgare
Verbascum thapsus
Tansy
Great Mullein
21.
Virburnum lentago
Nanny-berry
82
MUNSEE, SIX NATIONS RESERVE, ONTARIO
Native Use
Part of Plant
Type of
Used
Medicine
Medicine
(colds)
Root scraped
Medicine
(blood purifier, poultice)
Root, Leaves
Medicine
(consumption)
Root
Medicine
(stomach)
Leaves
Medicine
(tonic, general debility,
Bark
Compound
female
disorder)
Medicine
(colds)
Bark
Compound
Medicine
(tonic, female weakness)
Bark
Compound
Medicine
(infants)
Leaves
Simple
Medicine
(tonic, general debility,
Root
Compound
female
weakness)
Medicine
(kidneys, pulmonary
Twigs, pitch
Simple
boils)
Medicine
(bruises)
Leaves as poul-
tice
Simple
Medicine
(colds)
Bark
Compound
Medicine
(tonic)
Bark
Compound
Medicine
(tonic)
Bark
Compound
Medicine
(to stop vomiting)
Bark, pour
water in
Simple
Medicine
(diarrhea)
Berries
Medicine
(neuralgia)
Leaves
Medicine
(to stop vomiting)
Root powdered
Compound and
simple
Medicine
(stomach)
Plant
Medicine
(pain, swelling)
Leaves as
poultice
Simple
Medicine
(measles)
Leaves
Simple
83
PLANTS USED BY THE NANTICOKE OF
Botanical Name
Common Name
1.
Acorns calamus
Sweet Flag, "Muskrat-root"
2.
Arctium minus
Burdock
3.
Aristolochia serpentaria
Virginia Snakeroot
4.
Baptisia tinctoria
False Indigo
5.
Chimaphila maculata
Pipsissewa
6.
Eupatorium pcrfoliatum
Boneset
7.
Hedeoma pulegioidcs
False Pennyroyal
8.
Hepatica americana
Hepatica
9.
Impatiens biflora
Jewel-weed
10.
Leiophylhtin buxifolium
Sand Myrtle
11.
Monarda punctata
Horsemint
12.
Opuntia vulgaris
Prickly Pear
13.
Peltandra virginica
Arrowroot
14.
Pinus echinata
Yellow Pine
15.
Populus deltoidea
Poplar
16.
Symplocarpus foetidus
Skunk Cabbage
17.
Tanacetum vulgar e
Tansy
18.
Thymus serphyllmn
Wild Thyme
19.
Verbascum thapsus
Great Mullein
*20.
Sassafras sassafras
Sassafras
*21.
Asclepias tuherosa
Milkweed, "Frog's milk"
*22
Grossularia sp.
Wild Gooseberry. "Devil's-berry"
*23;
Sp.?
"Fish Weed"
*24.
Sp.?
"King Cole Oil Weed"
Reproduced from Speck, 1915, p. 32.
84
INDIAN RIVER, SUSSEX CO., DELAWARE
Use
Part Used
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
Medicine
(colic)
(boils)
(vermifuge)
(sprains)
(ague)
(chills and fever)
(sudorific)
(chills)
Medicine (burns)
Medicine (tonic)
Medicine (colds)
Medicine (warts)
Fed to babies
Medicine (cathartic)
Medicine (sprains)
Medicine (colds)
Medicine (sudorific)
Medicine (chills, fever)
Medicine (poultice for fever)
Medicine (fever, ague)
None
Food
Medicine (vermifuge)
Poultices
Root
Leaves
Root
Plant
Plant
Plant
Plant
First petals chewed to prevent
chills
Plant steeped for tea; leaves used
as poultice
Berries
Plant
Rub pear juice on wart
Root grated
Pellets of pine pitch
Bark
Leaves
Plant
Plant
Leaves dipped in vinegar and bound
on back of neck, forehead, wrists,
and soles of feet
Roots
None
Berries
Leaves chewed
Leaves and stems
85
INDEX
Acorns, used as food, 25, 49.
Agaricus campestris, 50.
Ague, treatment of, 55.
Algonkian, see Indian tribes.
Animals, as cause of disease, 3 ; as hu-
man pets, 36, 68; as transformed sor-
cerers, 41 ; ceremonially released from
captivity, 36, 68 ; controlled by herbal-
ist, 11, 13; propitiated by Indians, 8,
42, 47n, 50; relationship with man-
kind, 8, 50; sought for food, 51 ; util-
ization of products, 51.
Antler, deer, used as emergency rem-
edy, 14-15.
Antelope, 51.
Acculturation, of Delaware, 1, 49, 52-53.
Backache, treatment of, 54.
Bear, as greatest wild animal, 46, 51 ;
flesh sacrificed to Maize Spirit, 46.
Bear Abductor myth, 68.
Beaver, 51.
Bed-wetting, cure for, 33.
Be son, 10, 35n.
Beverage, preparation of, 25, 57.
Bezoar, see Medicine stone.
Big House (Annual) Ceremony, 4, 5, 6,
7, 9n, 16, 17, 32n, 46.
Bile, removal of, 24.
Birthmark, cause and significance of, 37.
Bison, 51.
Blacksnake, 54.
Bladder disorders, treatment of, 29.
Blisters, treatment of, 29.
Blood purifier, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32,
65, 66.
Botanical names, see Medicinal plants
for popular names :
Achillea millefolium, 29; Acorus
calamus, 31, 33n, 54, 55, 66; Aesculus
glabra, 25 ; A. syriaca, 57 ; Ambrosia
artemisiaefolia, 29; Angelica atropur-
purea, 28; Arctium minus, 31, 56, 65;
Asclepias tuberosa, 31 ; Aristolochia
serpentaria, 32, 56.
Baptisia tinctoria, 31, 55; Betula
lutea, 25; Brauneria purpurea, 29.
Carpinus caroliniana, 66 ; Carya
ovata, 66; Celastrus scandens, 31, 65;
Cercis canadensis, 25; Chiinaphila
umbellata, 29, 54; Chrysopsis mari-
ana, 28 ; Cimicifuge racemosa, 28, 32 ;
Cirsium lanceolatum, 30 ; Collinsonia
sp., 28 ; Cornus canadensis, 26 ; C.
ftorida, 26 ; Crotolaria saggitalis, 29.
Datura stramonium, 3\ ; Daucus
carota, 29; Dentaria diphylla, 29, 31.
Epipactus puhescens, 31 ; Eryngium
aquaticum, 29 ; Eupatorium perfoli-
atuni, 28, 55, 66.
Fraxinus americana, 25.
Gaultheria procumbens, 28, 30, 32;
Gelseinium sempervirens, 28 ; Genti-
ana crinita, 32 ; Gleditsia triacanthos,
25.
Hedeoma pidegioides, 29, 57 ; Heli-
anthemium canadense, 27 ; Hepatica
americana, 55; Humulus lupulus, 26;
Hydranga aborescens, 30.
Ilex opaca, 26 ; Impatiens biftora,
56; Inula helenium, 28, 31, 32, 66;
Iris versicolor, 30.
Juniperus communis, 66 ; /. virgini-
aiia, 30; Juglans nigra, 24.
Leiophyllum buxifolium, 57 ; Leo-
nurus cardiaca, 32 ; Lobelia cardinalis,
28 ; Lophophora zvilliamsii, 32.
Mitchella repens, 30 ; Monarda
punctata, 29 ; Morns nigra, 25 ; Myrica
asplenifolia, 29; Myrica sp., 29.
Nepeta cataria, 31, 66.
Opuntia vulgaris, 33, 56.
Panax quinquefolinm, 27 ; Peltan-
dra virginica, 57 ; Petasites palmata,
30 ; Phytolacca decandra, 27 ; Pim-
pinella anisum, 28 ; Pinus echinata,
54; P. sirobus, 66, 67; Plantago
major, 31, 65 ; Plantanus occidentalis,
25 ; Podophyllum peltatum, 12n, 32 ;
Populus deltoidea, 26, 55 ; P. tremu-
l aides, 66; Prunus persica, 26; P.
serotina, 27, 66; Prunella vulgaris, 31.
Ouercus alba, 25, 66; Q. muhlen-
bcrgii, 66; Q. palustris, 25; Q. rubra,
25 ; Q. velutina, 25.
Radicula armoracia, 65 ; Rhamnus
caroliniana, 25 ; Rhus copallina, 26 ;
R. to.vicondendron, 27; R. typhina,
28, 67 ; Rubus nigrobaccus, 28 ; Ru-
mex crispus, 28; R. obtusifolius, 28.
Sali.v humilis, 29 ; S. tristis, 28 ;
Sambucus canadensis, 26; Sanguin-
aria canadensis, 26, 32, 66 ; Sassafras
albidum, 25, 31, 55; Scutellaria galeri-
culafa, 31 ; Seduui telephoides, 65 ;
Smilacina stellata, 32; Solidago jun-
cea, 28; Symplocarpus foetidus, 31, 54,
87
Tanacetum vulgare, 57, 65 ; Tarax-
cum officinale, 32; Thymus serphyl-
lum, 55 ; Tsuga canadensis, 30 ; Tvpha
latifolia. 30.
Uliniis amcricana, 26.
Verbascuni thapsus, 30, 55, 65; I'i-
burnum lenfago, 65 ; V . pmnifolium,
26 ; Vitis rupestris, 26 ; V. vulpina, 26.
Xanthoxylitm americanum, 30.
Yucca filaiiicntosa, 55.
Bread dance, 46n.
Bullfrog, 60.
Butterfly, 60.
Buzzard, 59.
Cat, 45.
Catarrh, treatment of, 31.
Cathartic, 24-25, 28, 54.
Cayenne pepper tea, 6.
Cayuga, see Indian tribes.
Charcoal, 36, 37.
Cherokee, see Indian tribes.
Chicken pox, treatment of, 54.
Childbirth, 14, 36.
Chippewa, see Indian tribes.
Choctaw, see Indian tribes.
Clay vessel, 39.
Cockroach, 54.
Cocoanut, 50.
Colds, treatment for, 25, 26, 31, 33, 34,
54, 66, 67.
Colic, treatment for, 25, 55, 67.
Comet, as indication of war, 43.
Consanguinity of mankind, deities, na-
ture-forces, etc., 8n, 10, 20, 27, 31, 37,
50.
Conservation, principle of, 10.
Coughs, treatment for, 25, 26, 27, 31, 55.
Corn Famine text, 46n.
Corn Harvest rite, 46.
Corn, Indian, see Maize.
Creator (Great .Spirit), 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, 10, 11, 16, 17, 37n, 43, 44, 45,
47, 69.
Crow, 57.
Disease, cause assigned to : encounter
with ghost, 1 ; evil spirits in body, 1,
2, 39-40 ; failure to perform cere-
monies, 2, 3, 35 ; unclean habits of liv-
ing, 2. Visited upon child's pet dog,
36; increase assigned to, 1, 38, 51.
Divinatory practices, connected with
curing, 14, 15, 32-33; other types of,
16, 61.
Doctor, Indian, see Herbalist.
Dog, as vicar of children, 36 ; formally
released after owner's death, 36.
Douche, 25, 31. ^
Dreams, children's names secured in, 43 ;
significance of, 42, 50, 62-63 ; super-
natural power received in, 38.
Dream vision, importance in native life,
4; quest of, 4-5; revelation of, 5-7, 18.
Dwarf, supernatural, 1, 68-69.
Dysentery, treatment for, 28.
Ear ache, treatment for, 25, 26, 33, 56.
Earth, regarded as mother, 10.
Emergency remedy, 8, 11, 14.
Emetic, 15.
Epilepsy, treatment for, 32.
Face paint, 32.
Fast vigil, see Dream vision.
Fertility, to increase human, 26.
Fever, treatment for, 25, 28, 29, 31, 55.
Fire, as spirit force, 16, 19, 20.
First Fruits Ceremony, 47.
Fish, used as food, 51.
Fish hawk, 58.
Fish poison, 25.
"Fish weed," 56.
Fleas, 24.
Food, taboos connected with, 34 ; sacred
character of, 45.
Four directions, 9n.
Fowl, domestic, 44.
Frostbite, treatment of, 33, 56.
Death, communication after, 15, 37;
final words before, 16; omens of, 43,
44, 63.
Debility, female, treatment for, 26, 28,
31, 32, 67.
Deer, as game animal, 46, 51.
Delaware, see Indian tribes.
Delaware Bay, 51.
Devil, 41, 57.
Diabetes, treatment for, 29.
Diarrhea, treatment for, 27, 28, 37, 67.
Diet, curative, 13-14.
Gallstone, treatment for, 30.
Game lure, 13, 21, 35, 51.
Gayhead Indians, see Indian tribes.
Geese, wild, 57.
Generative organs, remedies for, 26, 30,
31.
Ghost, believed to cause sickness, 2;
characteristics of, 2, 3 ; incident of en-
counter with, 2-3.
Giver of Game, 22.
Great Spirit, see Creator.
Groundnut, 50.
88
Hair, care of, 26, Z7, 59.
Halley's Comet, 43.
Heart disorders, treatment of, 30.
Herbalist, classes of, 7, 11 ; practices of,
4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12; medicine bundle
of, 21-22.
Herbs, see Medicinal plants.
Hog, 44, 57.
Hominy, used in curative diet, 14, 46;
preparation of, 46, 48-49, 51.
Horned toad, 22.
Horse, sickness of, 34.
Humility, native concept of, 5.
Indian tribes :
Algonkian, 21, 24, 33n ; Cayuga, 52n ;
Cherokee, 3, 40; Chippewa, 18n ;
Choctaw, 5; Delaware (Lenape), 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13n, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 27, 32, 34, 36,
38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52,
64; of Oklahoma, 2, 18, 64, 66; of
Ontario, 19n, 64, 66; Gayhead, 33n,
46n, 48n; Iroquois, 45n, 47, 48; Mo-
hegan, 46n, 48n ; Muskhogean, 3 ;
Nanticoke, 12n, 38, 52, S3, 54, 57, 58,
61, 62 ; Narragansett, 48n ; Pamun-
key, 59; Pequot, 48n; Saulteaux, In;
Seneca, 40; Six Nations, 52; Wam-
panoag, 46n, 48n, 67n.
Inflammation, treatment of, 24, 64, 65.
Intestinal pain, treatment of, 25, 31.
Iroquois, see Indian tribes.
Insanity, cause of, 3.
Jack-o'-lantern, 58.
Jaundice, treatment of, 26, 28.
Jesus, 5.
Kidneys, treatment of disordered, 29, 30,
57, 66.
Killdeer, 57.
"King Cole Oil" weed, 56.
Lameness, treatment of, 54.
Laxative, 31, 32.
Lenape, see Indian tribes.
Leucorrhea, treatment of, 26, Z2.
Lightning Spirit, 19.
Liver, treatment of disordered, 29, 30,
31, 57.
Lost objects, locating, 15.
Love charms, preparation of, 12, 60-62.
"Love doctor," practices of, 12.
Machtuzin, 16.
Maize (Indian corn) : as Delaware su-
pernatural, 45-46 ; ceremonies con-
nected with, 46 ; cultivation of, 47 ;
fertilization of, 47 ; preparation of,
47-49; varieties of, 46, 48.
Malformation, cause of congenital, 2.
Manitowuck, 9n.
"Mask," vision of, 3.
Masked Dance, 48.
Mattapassigan, 12n, 38.
Measles, treatment for, 6, 65.
Meat, preparation of, 51.
Medeit, 18n.
Medicine Bundle, importance of, 21, 22,
35; contents of, 21, 39; disposal of,
22.
Medicine charm, 22.
Medicine song, 18.
Medicine stone, 23, 35.
Medicinal plants, see Botanical names
for scientific terms :
Angelica, 28; Anise, 28; May ap-
ple, 12n, 32 ; aspen, 55 ; arrow-arum,
57 ; white ash, 25 ; prickly ash, 25, 30 ;
golden aster, 28.
Bayberry, 26, 29 ; partridge berry,
30; bittersweet, 27, 31, 65; yellow
birch, 25 ; blackberry, 28 ; bloodroot,
26, iZ, 66; boneset, 28, 55, 66; buck-
thorn^ 25; bull thistle, 30; butterfly
weed, 31; burdock, 31, 56, 65; little
burr, 29.
Cardinal flower, 28; skunk cabbage,
31, 54; wild carrot, 29; catnip, 31,
66; cattail, 30; cedar, 30, 43; wild
cherry, 25, 27, 28, 66; chestnut, 25;
"blacic cohosh," 28; coltsfoot, 30;
purple cone-flower, 28, 29 ; cotton-
wood, 26.
Dandelion, ZZ, SO ; devil's shoe-
string, 55 ; dock, 28, SO ; dogwood, 26.
Elder, 26, 27, 29; dwarf elder, 29;
elecampane, 28, 31, Z2, 66; elm, 26;
"expert weed," 30.
Flag (blue), 30; sweet flag, 25, 31,
33n, 54, 66 ; sweet fern, 29 ; "frost
(ice) weed," 22, 27, 30.
Ginseng, 27; goldenrod, 28; fringed
gentian, 2>2 ; grape, 26 ; fox grape, 26 ;
mountain grape, 27.
Haw (black), 26; heal-all, 31;
hedge nettle, 29 ; hemlock, 30 ; hepat-
ica, 55 ; hickory, 66 ; holly, 26 ; honey
locust, 25 ; hops, 26, 30 ; hornbeam
(American), 66; "horse-hobble
weed," 28 ; horsemint, 29 ; horseradish,
65.
Lamb's quarters, 50 ; live-forever,
65.
Mallow, 29; milkweed, 2>2, SO, 57;
mother-wort, 32 ; "prairie moss," 28 ;
mulberry, 25; mullein, 28, 30, 31, 55,
65 ; sand myrtle, 57 ; mustard, SO.
89
Nannyberry, 65 ; nightshade, 29.
Oak (black), 25; pin oak, 25; red
oak, 25 ; white oak, 25, 66 ; i'ellow
oak, 66.
Parilla (yellow), 27; peach, 26, 31
pearly everlasting, 26 ; false penny
royal, 29, 57 ; peppermint, 26 ; peyotC;
32 ; white pine, 66, 67 ; yellow pine,
54 ; pipsissewa, 29, 55 ; common plan-
tain, 31, 65 ; rattlesnake plantain, 31
wild plum, 26, 30; poke, 27, 28, 30,
50; poplar, 66; prickly pear, 23, 56.
Ragweed, 29 ; rattle-box, 29 ; red
bud, 25.
Wild sage, 20; sarsaparilla, 26, 27;
sassafras, 25, 31, 55; sevenbark, 30;
skull-cap, 31 ; black snakeroot, 28, 32;
button snakeroot, 29 ; Virginia snake-
root, 32, 56 ; Solomon's seal, 28, 29,
32 ; false spikenard, 26 ; star grass,
55; "stone root," 26, 28, 32; dwarf
sumac, 26, 30 ; staghorn sumac, 28,
67 ; sycamore, 25.
Tansy, 57, 65 ; thyme, 55 ; tooth-
wort, 29, 31 ; "turkey-foot," 28.
Walnut (black), 24; wintergreen,
28, 30, 32 ; prairie willow, 29 ; sage
willow, 28.
Yarrow, 29.
Gathering of, 8, 9, 14, 15, 6-1; magi-
cal use of, 11, 12, 13; propitiated by
herbalist, 8, 10; relationship to man-
kind, 8.
Men, as herbalists, 4, 8.
Menstruation, restrictions during, 14;
treatment of suppressed, 30, 31.
Midewiwin, 18n.
Midwife, 36, 43.
Milky Way, 57.
Mohegan, see Indian tribes.
Mole, 57.
Moon, 58.
Mortars, wooden, 46.
Mouth wash, 27.
Mushroom, 50, 60.
Muskhogean, see Indian tribes.
"Muskrat root," 33, 54.
Myth, Delaware, child vanquishes
powerful opponent, 2n.
Nanticoke, see Indian tribes.
Narragansett, see Indian tribes.
Nausea, treatment of, 24, 27.
Nervousness, treatment of, 26.
Nose bleed, to stop, 55.
Nuts, used as food, 49.
Omens, of death, 3, 43, 44, 63;
weather, 44, 57-58.
Onions, wild, 14, 50.
Otter, as sacred animal, 35, 51 ; medi-
cine of, 35.
Owl, 37, 38, 41.
Pain, alleviation of, 26.
Pamunkey, see Indian tribes.
Paralysis, supposed cause of, 2 ; treat-
ment of, 15, 35.
Parilla, yellow, 27, 28.
Pequot, see Indian tribes.
Persimmorij 49.
Pets, see Animals, Dog.
Peyote cult, 20, 32.
Piles, treatment for, 31.
Plants, medicinal, see Medicinal plants.
Plants, relationship with mankind, 8.
Pleiades, 69n.
Pleurisy, treatment of, 31.
Prayer, employed in curing, 9, 10,
12-13 ; to propitiate animals, 42, 50.
Pregnancy, care during, 36 ; taboos, 36.
Profanity, as cause of disease, 2.
Propiatory rites, employed in curing,
8, 9, 10, 35.
Puberty ceremony, 14n.
"Pull-up" plant, 13.
Purificatory rites, see Sweating rites.
Purity, concept of, 4, 10, 35, 45.
Rabbit, 44, 51, 56.
Rainbow, 43.
"Red root" (sage willow), 28.
Rheumatism, cause assigned to, 2 ;
treatment for, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31, 54.
Ringworm, treatment for, 24.
Salt, use of, 14, 36.
Saulteaux, see Indian tribes.
Scorpion lizard, 59.
Scrofula, cause assigned to, 2; treat-
ment for, 29, 30.
Seven Stars, myth of, 69.
Sexual intercourse, taboo upon, 37.
Shaman, functions of, 15, 39; super-
natural power of, 18.
Sharing Feast, 50-51.
Shingles, treatment for, 56.
Sickness, see Disease.
Sin, as cause of disease. In.
Six Nations, see Indian tribes.
Skin eruptions, treatment of, 26, 27, 31,
33.
Snaii, 60.
Snake bite, treatment of, 34.
Snare, magical, 42.
Sorcerer, 1, 11, 12, 13, 38-39, 54; prac-
tices of, 7n, 8, 12, 13, 38-42; power
granted in dream, 38; supernatural
token of, 40.
90
Sorcery, as cause of disease, 1, 7n ;
introduced by Nanticoke, 38; inci-
dents illustrating, 39-42. .
Sorrel, SO.
Spider, 55, 60.
Spirit-forces, 2, 9, 19, 20.
Spirits, malevolent, 2, 7n, 38.
Spirit song, 19, 34.
Squirrel, 51.
Star, falling, 43, 58.
Stillbirth, 36.
Stomach ailments, treatment of, 28, 29,
31, 32, 55, 65.
Stone, as Spirit-force, 19, 20.
Submersion feat, 15, 16.
Sun, healing power of, 10, 14.
Sun Dog (parhelion), 58.
Supernatural guardian, see Dream vi-
sion; importance in curing, 3, 4, 8n,
15; quest for, 4, 18.
Susquehanna River, 52.
Sweat doctor, payment to, 18; prac-
tices of, 3, 10, 17, 18, 39.
Sweat lodge, 3, 4, 5 ; construction of,
18-19; functions of, 16-18, 20; use in
peyote cult, 20.
Sweating rites, importance of, 16; bene-
fits from, 17.
Taboos, see Childbirth ; Pregnancy ;
Food.
Teeth, care of, 'iT , 59.
Throat, treatment of sore, 25, 27, 28, 55.
Tabacco, addressed as Grandfather, 9n,
12; as propitiatory offering, 9, 12, 42,
43, 50; gift to midwife, 36; gift to
herbalist, 8, 12; medicinal use, 34, 55,
56 ; mixed with angelica seed, 28 ; use
by sorcerer, 39.
Tonic, preparation of, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31,
32, 55, 17, 66.
Toothache, treatment for, 26, 56.
Tuberculosis, cause assigned to, 14,
treatment of, 29, 31, 32, 65.
Turtle-dove, 58, 59.
Twelve, concept of, as expressed in
sweat lodge, 18, 19: in Delaware cos-
mogany, 18: in herbal compounds,
24n.
Twins, belief about, 36-37.
Typhoid, treatment for, 28.
Ulcers, treatment of, 25, 26.
Vegetable foods, wild, 49-50.
Vegetation Ceremony, 46n.
Venereal disease, treatment of, 27, 28,
29.
Vermifuge, 26, 29, 56.
Vicar, animal, see Dog.
Vomiting, to produce, 24n ; to stop, 25,
26, 66.
Walnuts, used as food, 60.
Wampanoag, see Indian tribes.
Wampum, use in curing, 35 ; in release
of animal pet, 36, 68.
Warrior, medicine bundle of, 21, 35;
medicine of, 34-35.
Warts, removal of, 55-56.
Water, as Spirit-force, 19, 20.
Weasel, 34n.
Weather omens, see Omens.
Whippoorwill, 58.
Whooping cough, treatment for, 31, ZZ,
53-54.
Witchcraft, see Sorcery.
Wolf, 44, 45.
Women, as herbalists, 4, 7-8 ; as sweat
doctors, 18 ; influenced by love
charms, 12.
"Yuchi gonorrhea medicine," 29.
91
CRYSTAL BOARD
PAMPHLET BINDER
Manufactured by
eAYLORD BROS.Inc.
Syracuse, N. Y.
Stockton, Calif.
V. ■#-«%
-*: f
J/-
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11